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Iiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiiin 

Dissecting and Calculating I 
| Silk Fabrics I 

A Practical Handbook on Manufacturing 1 

Broad and Narrow Fabrics, for Use in the | 

| Mill, the Office, and the School Room. | 

Formulas and Examples for the Analysis and | 

Construction of Yarns and Fabrics, with | 

Cost Calculation Forms for Skein and | 

Piece Dyed Silk and Mixed Yarn Fabrics. | 

By HORACE NEILD 1 

= ' ' * = 

Instructor of Fabric Dissecting and Calculating, | 

Paterson, N. J. Vocational School ' = 

E E 

? I 

Diagrams and Illustrations | 

1 Issued by | 

THE AMERICAN SILK JOURNAL 

Clifford & Lawton, Publishers 
J New York 

| 1924 | 

Ini...min.11111111...11111.111111111111111.1.. 



TS\\A<| 

■M 


Copyright 1924 , by Horace Neild. 
All rights reserved. 




GROLIER CRAFT PRESS, Printers 
229 West 28th Street 
New York City 


JUL21 24 

©CH800462 


Tv* I 



INTRODUCTION 

"Chapter I 

OILK manufacturing in the United States has 
^ developed into copying fabrics. Some firms, 
it is true, especially the larger ones, create some 
of their goods. Most fabrics, however, are 
copied from cloths made abroad, called foreign 
samples. These may be changed to work on our 
mass producing machinery and made cheaper 
than the imported fabrics. And when a firm pro¬ 
duces a fabric that begins to sell, other firms copy 
it immediately. 

This copying may or may not be an exact 
duplication. Certain features of the fabric may 
be discarded and others substituted, or the quality 
may be cheapened, or the design, the construc¬ 
tion, the fibers, or the colors may be switched 
around, but the fabric is in some way copied. 

There is a practical reason for this. Silk 
has become such an expensive commodity that 
large experimentation with new cloths is too 
costly for most firms. So, any new fabric that 
comes on the market is immediately analyzed, or, 
as it is called in the silk business, dissected. 

The dissection of silk fabrics has become a 
most important part of silk manufacturing. To 
take apart a sample piece of cloth, to find of what 


3 



it is composed, the fibers, the construction and 
the design, is of vital importance. Then to esti¬ 
mate the cost for which it can be duplicated under 
the firm’s particular conditions is the heart of the 
silk business. No firm which ignores this part of 
manufacturing can be long successful. 

The dictates of fashion change fabrics con¬ 
tinually, more so to-day than at any former 
period. The cry is louder all the time for some¬ 
thing new. Cotton, wool, worsted, etc., can still 
be made in many staples, but not silk. Silk, the 
aristocratic fabric, must be made new, novel and 
distinctive, to achieve a profitable success. And 
the man who learns all he can about varying silk 
fabrics will achieve this success. 

Also, this means that the creation of new 
fabrics will be tried more and more as time goes 
on. And to create new fabrics the man must 
know what can be used to create new cloths. 
What fibers, what constructions, what designs are 
available. These taken separately are limited. 
There are comparatively few fibers, a limited 
number of ground constructions and a few basic 
designs, but the combinations of these are end¬ 
less. The blending of these resources for pro¬ 
ducing new, novel and distinctive fabrics will 
become a fine art. 

This text-book lays first stress on fibers, for 
in fibers the greatest variety in fabrics can be 
obtained. Fibers are explained in enough detail 
to give ideas for different uses to get different 
results. Silk, of course, is the main fiber and 
must predominate in a slik fabric. In construction 
and design the basic principles are given from 
which any variation can be readily worked out. 


4 


The book, nevertheless, attacks all problems 
for the ultimate object of getting costs. It is 
essentially a book on calculation. But to get 
costs the composition of the fabric must be first 
known. Next, the problem of how much mater¬ 
ial will be required to make the fabric. And last, 
the methods of costing in the manufacture of the 
fabric as a whole 


5 


Chapter II 
YARNS 

Y ARNS made from fibers are the ingredients, 
the material that goes to make up fabrics. 
Nothing else, except perhaps a solution of soaps 
and gums put on the goods when finished, is 
used. Yarns are the sole raw material. 

There are only ten possible yarns available 
for manufacturing silk fabrics, not counting glass 
and feathers, which are so rarely used as to be 
negligible. The yarns are: cotton, wool, worsted, 
linen, ramie, metal threads, such as gold and sil¬ 
ver tinsel, rubber strands, and the silk yarns, 
spun, schappe or noil silks, artificial and natural 
silk. These make up the entire list at present. 
The two newest are ramie, a plant fiber, and arti¬ 
ficial silk, a manufactured fiber. The others have 
been in use for centuries. 

Each yarn, however, according to its natural 
properties and manufacture, can be subjected to 
many uses and many effects. That is why it is 
important to know yarns. The following chap¬ 
ters will give an account of yarns as material and 
how they are calculated. 



6 


COTTON 


Cotton is a vegetable fiber. The different 
kinds are natives of India, Brazil, Egypt, Peru 
and the United States. The plant has from three 
to five-lobed leaves, rather large flowers, mostly 
yellow but sometimes purple. The fruit is a three 
to five celled capsule, springing open when ripe 
and containing many seeds wrapped in cotton. 
This is generally white but sometimes yellow. 

History: The oldest producing country is 
India, where cotton has been grown since beyond 
the memory of man. Cotton was also used very 
early in China, and in Egypt. For many centuries 
it was produced in the Mediterranean countries. 
Columbus found it in the West Indies and his 
successors in Mexico and North America. The 
United States commenced the business about a 
hundred and fifty years ago and now produces 
over half the world’s cotton. Egypt, India and 
Brazil are the other main sources of supply at 
present. 

Cultivation: The most perfect system of 
cultivation is that in use in the United States. 
The ground is plowed early and as soon as the 
frost is out of the ground, in March usually, the 
seed is planted in furrows. Blooming takes place 
about the beginning of June. Picking generally 
commences in August and lasts till frost stops 
further growth of the plant. The cotton is gath¬ 
ered into baskets hung from the shoulders of the 
pickers. It is then spread out and dried, then 
separated from the seeds. 

Cotton Gin : The separation of seed and 


7 


cotton is accomplished by a cotton gin. The first 
gin was invented by Eli Whitney in 1793 . Per¬ 
haps the best known gin to-day is the McCarthy, 
which consists of a hopper from which the seed 
cotton is drawn by friction between the leather 
rollers and a doctor knife. The fiber is pulled 
under the knife by the roller causing the seeds 
to drop behind. The cotton is then packed into 
bales for shipping. 



Magnified cotton fibres 
appear not cylindrical 
but flat with flanged 
edges and turning in 
spirals. 


Spinning: When cotton reaches the mills 
where it is to be treated for yarns, the bales are 
opened and the cotton beaten to clean the fibers. 


8 



All impurities, such as seeds, leaf and sand, are 
driven out and the fiber consolidated in sheet 
form, then rolled into lap form. The cotton is 
then fed into a finishing scutcher where further 
cleaning is effected. It is next carded, which 
converts the cotton from lap to a soft rope or 
sliver, which is the beginning of the yarn. When 
yarns of finer qualities are desired it is combed. 
After combing the sliver is drawn out and the 
fibers laid parallel with each other and drawn 
into finer slivers. The cotton is then passed 
through three flyer frames; first, the slubber; sec¬ 
ond, the intermediate; and finally the rover. This 
is the stage at which it is spun into various sizes 
of yarns. 

Appearance: Raw cotton fiber when placed 
under a magnifying glass resembles miniature 
corkscrews, which lock each other when twisted 
into yarn. The yarn under a glass appears flat, 
ribbon-like, with notched edges where the twist 
runs. Mercerized cotton appears under a glass to 
be round, rod-like, with a glossy surface. 

Qualities: The quality of cotton yarn de¬ 
pends upon where the cotton is grown. The 
best known grade of cotton is Sea Island. This 
is raised off the coast and directly on the coast of 
South Carolina and Georgia. Sea Island cotton 
has a staple ranging from 1 to 2/z inches long, 
which allows it to be spun into 150s single and 
400s for ply yarn. Its fiber closeiy resembles silk, 
being very fine and strong and clean. These cot¬ 
tons are always combed and are used in fabrics 
where fine counts are required. 

Lower grades of Sea Island cottons are 


9 


grown in Florida and the mainland of Georgia 
and South Carolina, from Sea Island seed. 

Though Sea Island is American cotton, to 
the cotton trade the word “American” applies to 
cotton grown in the great cotton belt across the 
south of the United States. The most important 
of these come into the market as follows: Gulf 
or New Orleans, Bender or Bottom land varie¬ 
ties. These vary in length of staple from 1 to 
inches, allowing spinning up to 80s single. 
Next in importance are Mobile, Peelers, Allen 
Seed, Mississippi, Louisiana, Selma, Arkansas 
and Memphis cottons. Texas cotton varies from 
% to 1 inch in length of staple, and is used for 
yarns up to 40s. Uplands cotton comes in the 
coarser counts up to 40s. 

Egyptian cotton ranks high in the commer¬ 
cial world. The color varies from dark cream to 
a brown tint, according to the soil in which it is 
grown. Its staple varies from 1 % to \y 2 inches, 
which allows spinning up to 100s. 

Brazilian cotton averages 1 % inches in staple 
and is suitable for 40s to 60s. 

From this it will be seen that the length 
of the staple, which is the fiber as it comes 
from the plant, determines the size of cotton that 
can be spun. These fibers are joined together to 
make a continuous thread. And the longer the 
fiber the finer the yarn, because there are less 
joinings. The fibers when joined together over¬ 
lap one another, making a thicker yarn and a 
coarser count. 

Sizing : Cotton yarns are spun in singles and 


10 


folded, or ply yarns. “Single” mean the cotton 
has been spun into a single thread, and ply yarns 
mean the thread has been doubled or tripled. 
When two or three threads are folded together 
they are usually twisted when folded. The single 
thread may be twisted first and twisted when 
folded. The single thread is technically written 
40s, or l/40s, the folded thread as 2/40s, or 
3/40s. The number of folds or ply is written 
before the size. Ply yarns are naturally much 
stronger than single yarns, so the single is more 
often used for filling and the ply for warp. 

Cotton yarns have for their standard 840 
yards to 1 hank and are graded by the number 
of hanks contained in 1 pound. If 2 hanks or 
2X840=1680 yds. weigh 1 lb. this would be a 
No. 2 cotton. If 3 hands or 3X840-—2520 yds. 
weigh 1 lb. this would be a No. 3 cotton. Adding 
840 yds. for each successive number will give the 
yards of various counts and number of the yarn 
for one pound. A scale would be as follows: 


Cotton 


No. 

Yds. 

to Lb. 

1 

840 

1 

10 

8400 

1 

20 

16800 

1 

30 

25200 

1 

40 

33600 

1 

50 

42000 

1 

60 

50400 

1 

70 

58800 

1 

80 

67200 

1 

90 

75600 

1 

100 

84000 

1 


It will,be noted that the more yards it takes 
to balance 1 pound, the finer the cotton and the 
higher the number in the size. 


11 


When cotton yarns are made up into 2-ply 
the number of yards required for one pound is 
only half the amount required for the single 
thread. This will be clear when it is realized that 
a thread doubled will be only half as long but 
twice as thick. For instance, take a string two 
yards long and double it, the string will measure 
one yard but will be twice as heavy. The same 
thing applies to ply yarns in cotton. A 3-ply 
cotton will have a third the amount of yards the 
size in singles calls for, and will equal in size the 
single divided by three. For example a 2/30s 
will equal in yards and size 15s single, and a 
3/30s will equal in yards and size a 10s single. 
Simply divide the size by the ply to get its equiva¬ 
lent in singles and the yards per pound. 

Sometimes a ply yarn is made up of different 
sizes in the single thread. For instance, a 40s 
and 60s may be run together in a 2-ply. The 
rule governing this is: When a compound thread 
is composed of two minor threads of unequal 
counts, divide the product of the counts of the 
minor threads by their sum. 

Take the example of 1 end 40s and 1 end 
60s manufactured into a 2-ply. What is the 
equivalent in single? 

The product 60X40=2400 divided by the 
sum 60+40=100 equal 24s. 

In fancy yarns a 3-ply may be composed of 
three different size threads. For instance, we 
have a yarn composed of 1 end 60s, 1 end 20s and 
1 end 15s; what is the equivalent in singles? 

Rule: Compound any two of the minor 


12 


threads into one and apply previous rule, or div¬ 
ide one of the counts by itself and by the o^ther 
counts in succession and afterwards by the sum 
of the quotients. 

Example: 

First rule, 60X20=1200=(60+20)80=15 

15X15= 225-=-(15+15) 30= 7+s 

Second rule, 60-r-60=l 
60=20=3 
60=15=4 

Sum of quotients, 8 

60=8=71+s 


13 


Chapter III 

WOOL AND WORSTED 

W OOL is the most important animal fiber. It 
is a sort of hair grown on the bodies of 
sheep and goats. The fiber of raw wool differs 
from hair in being crinkly or wavy and having 
minute scales on the surface. These properties 
make it very valuable for textile uses. 

Qualities: Wool varies in quality with 
different species of sheep and goats, and also 
with the food, shelter, and climate of each specie. 
The saxon and merino wools are the most com¬ 
mon. That of the Angora goat, called mohair, 
is the whitest, while the Cashmere goat, though 
short stapled, furnishes the softest and richest 
wool. Alpaca wool conies from an animal of 
that name found in the Andes, in Peru, and is 



Weighing and bundling skeins 
of raw silk for the market. 


14 




of fine quality, either white, black or gray, and 
runs from two to six inches in length of staple. 
The Merino sheep, originally from Spain, fur¬ 
nishes one of the best varieties of wool; a single 
fleece usually weighs from four to five pounds. 

Yarns : Sheeps’ wool is made up into yarns 
in two different ways, called carding and comb¬ 
ing. The short fibers are carded and the long 
fibers usually combed. The raw fibers are 
sheathed with strong, rough, hooked scales, 
which are valuable for interlocking the fibers 
when binding them together. Under a micro¬ 
scope the raw fiber looks like the serrated trunk 
of a palm tree. 

The carding of wool is accomplished by re- 



Fibres of wool highly magnified 
showing ragged and serrated 
scales. 


15 



arranging the fibers. They are torn apart, 
crossed and recrossed many times until the fibers 
are thinned out into a fine layer of wool. 

Appearance: The continuous entangling 
and mixing of fibers causes their ends to stick 
out of the thread in every direction when twisted 
into yarn. These ends make a soft, crinkly cov¬ 
ering to the thread, which is the effect desired in 
carded wool. Under glass, wool yarn appears 
covered with an entanglement of hair. When un¬ 
twisted the fibers can be pulled apart and though 
wetted will always remain crinkly. 

Sizing : There are two systems of measure¬ 
ment for wool. The Run system and the Cut 
system. 

RUN SYSTEM 

In the Run system woolen yarns have for 
their standard 1600 yards of number 1 run to 1 
pound. Number 2 run yarn 3200 yards to 1 
pound, etc. Consequently, adding 1600 yards for 
each successive run will give the sumber of yards 
per pound. In addition to using whole numbers, 
as in the case of cotton and worsted yarns, the 
run is divided into eighths, quarters and halves. 
The scale is as follows: 


% run yarn 200 yards per pound, 
i/ “ “ unn “ “ “ 


^ “ 

“ 400 


5* “ 

“ 800 


H “ 

“ 1200 


l 

“ 1600 


2 

“ 3200 

“ etc. 

The run basis is very 

convenient for textile 

calculations by 

reason of 

the standard number 


equalling 100 times the number of ounces that 
one pound contains. 1600 yards per pound di- 


16 








vided by 16 ounces per pound gives 100 yards 
per ounce. And to find the weight of a given 
run and number of yards, simply multiply the 
size of the yarn by 100 and divide the result into 
the number of yards; this will give the answer 
in ounces. 

Example: 

Find the weight of 3600 yards of 2 run yarn? 

Solution: 2 runX 100=200. 3600-=-200= 18 ounces. 

CUT SYSTEM 

The Cut system has for its standard 300 
yards per pound, which is the same as linen. The 
count of woolen yarns expressed in the cut mul¬ 
tiplied by 300 gives the number of yards in one 
pound. For further explanations follow Linen 
Scale. 

WORSTED 

Worsted, first made in the town of Worsted, 
England, is the long fibers of wool, combed and 
spun much the same as long fibered, fine cotton 
is spun. The fibers after combing are neatly laid 
in lengths, along side each other, and continually 
pulled out, one fiber past its neighbor, until they 
are drawn to size. They are then twisted. 

To get only the long fibers of the wool the 
short fibers must be combed out. These combs 
are usually circular machines. The combs re¬ 
volve, tearing the short fiber from the long and 
delivering the short lengths into a cylinder be¬ 
neath, while the long lengths pass out a continu¬ 
ous band of long, straight wool. These are laid 
out in slivers, drawn to size and spun into yarns. 

Worsted under a glass appears a shiny, 
solid, round thread with single fibers occasionally 


17 


showing in the direction of the twist. When un¬ 
twisted the fibers can easily be drawn apart; they 
would be long, crinkly fibers of wool. 

Sizing: Worsted comes in singles and ply 
yarns. The standard of measurement is 560 
yards to one hank. The number of hanks that 
balance one- pound indicate the size of yarn. If 
24 hanks each of 560 yards weigh one pound 
such yarn is called 24s worsted, if 50 hanks, each 
of 560 yards, weigh one pound, the size is called 
50s worsted. The number of yards in any size 
is found by multiplying the size by 560. The 
scale is as follows: 

No. 1 worsted 560 yards per pound. 


“ 10 

5,600 “ 

“ 20 

11,200 “ 

“ 30 

16,800 “ 

“ 40 

22,400 “ 

“ 50 

28,000 “ “ . “ 

“ 60 

33,600 “ 

“ 70 

39,200 “ 

“ 80 

44,800 “ 

“ 90 

50,400 “ 

“ 100 

56,000 “ 


For any size in between these numbers mul¬ 
tiply the size by 560. 

Example: 

How many yards to one pound in No. 48s worsted? 

Solution: 48X560=26,880 yds. per pound. 

When worsted yarns are manufactured into 
2 -ply the number of yards are only half the 
amount of the single thread. Because a thread 
doubled is only half as long but twice as thick, 
which makes a 2-ply equal half its size in singles. 


18 





It is technically written with the ply in front of 
the size, as 2/24s, 2/32s, etc. 

Example: 

How many yards in 2/48s worsted? 

Solution: 48-^2=24X560=13,440 yds. per pound. 

Should the yarn be more than 2-ply, divide 
the size number by the ply number. For example, 
3/69s would be 6SM-3—23s single. 

If the ply yarn be composed of different size 
singles, the same rules apply as in cotton. For 
example, we have a 2-ply yarn composed of 20s 
and 30s; what would be the equivalent in singles ? 

Example: 

Solution: 20 and 30=50. 20X30=600--50=12s. 

single. 

Find equal counts in a single thread of a 3-ply wor¬ 
sted composed of 90s, 45s, and 30s? 

• Solution: 90^-90=1 90-f-6=15s, Ans. 

90-1-45=2 
90-f-30=3 

6 ~ 


19 


Chapter IV 


LINEN, RAMIE, METAL THREADS, 
RUBBER STRANDS 


LINEN 



iINEN is the thread and fabric made from the 


fibers of flax. Flax is a well known plant, 
of which there are two varieties, although the 
shorter kind yields the finer, softer and whiter 
fiber. Flax is usually pulled up by the roots 
when used for the fiber. This is done v/hen the 
stalks turn yellow at the base and the seeds 
change from green to a pale brown. . An outline 
of the manufacture is as follows: 

“Rippling” the flax is removing the seeds, 
which are used for paints, oils, etc., by means 
of a comb. 



Skeins of Japan raw silk as it is received in “book” 
form for further processing at the silk mill here. 


20 





“Retting” is loosening the fibers from the 
stems by fermentation. 

“Grassing” is airing, drying and partially 
bleaching the fibers. 

“Breaking” is passing the flax between roll¬ 
ers for the purpose of breaking the woody parts 
throughout the length of the plant. 

“Scrutching” is separating the woody part 
from the fiber. 

“Roughing” is opening the fibers. 

“Hackling” is combing out the short fibers. 

“Sorting” is grading the flax. 

“Spinning” is drawing out the fibers to re¬ 
quired size and twisting them the required turns 
per inch into linen yarns. 

Sizing: Linen has for its standard 300 
yards to the hank or lea. It is graded by the 
number of hanks or lea that weigh one pound. 
A skeleton scale would be as follows: 


No. 1 one hank or lea 


“ 10 ten 

u n u 

3,000 

u u a 

“ 20 twenty 

u a ll 

6,000 

u a a 

“ 30 thirty 

it ii it 

9,000 

ii ii 6* 

“ 40 forty 

a it it 

12,000 

a (( 1%. 

“ 50 fifty 

(( a a 

15,000 


“ 60 sixty 

u u a 

18,000 

u n a 

“ 70 seventy 

a a u 

21,000 

a n a 

“ 80 eighty 

ii ii ii 

24,000 


“ 90 ninety 


27,000 


“ 100 hund’d 

n a a 

30,000 

a a a 


For any size in between these numbers mul¬ 
tiply the count by 300. 


Example: 

How many yards to one pound in No. 44s linen? 
Solution: 44X300=13,200 yards per pound. Ans. 

When linen comes in ply yarns the ply is 
written before the count, as 2/30s, 3/30s, etc. 
And to get the equal count in singles divide by 


21 











the ply, as 2/30s, equal 30^-2—15s and 3/30s, 
equal 30-=-3=10s. A ply yarn will have the same 
number of yards per pound as its equivalent in 
singles. 

The rules for ply yarns of different size 
threads are the same as cotton and worsted, ex¬ 
cept that the standard will be 300 yards per 
pound for linen and jute. 

RAMIE 

Ramie is a plant called China grass, Chinese 
nettle, and Rhea, and is grown in China, Japan 
and India. The fibers lie under the bark of the 
plant and are held together by a natural gum. 
Like silk, ramie must be degummed, and soaked 
in many baths of soaps and oils. 

Ramie is many times stronger than cotton, 
flax, hemp and similar fibers. Its staple is re¬ 
markably long, running from three to nine 
inches. In luster it resembles silk more than any 
other fiber and it does not rot. There is no fab¬ 
ric produced in wool, cotton, flax, or even silk, 
which ramie cannot imitate and in most cases 
excel. It is usually treated on the same machin¬ 
ery as spun silk. 

Ramie is figured according to where it is 
manufactured into yarns. If manufactured in 
France or Germany it is calculated by the metric 
system. In the metric count the basis is 1000 
metres per kilogramme. A 100s M. C. runs 100,- 
000 metres per kilogramme. 

In America the size and weight of hanks de¬ 
pend upon who is using the yarn; if the linen 
firms order it they want the same length and 
weight used in their linen scale; for a cotton 


22 


firm it is wanted in cotton scale measurement. 
Often ramie is figured the same as spun silk. 

METAL THREADS 

These come in gold, silver, steel, copper, 
aluminum, etc. They are. made in fine, fiat, rib¬ 
bon-like strands, or round, rod-like threads, or 
are twisted with silk or cotton threads. Usually 
they are called tinsel yarns, lame, laminette, etc. 

It is difficult to formulate any rules for fig¬ 
uring tinsel yarns. They continually vary in size, 
and each country where they are made uses dif¬ 
ferent measurements. Allowances must be made 
in the fabric for the style and amount used. 


23 


Chapter V 


SPUN SILK OR SCHAPPE, FILOSELLE, 


NOILS 



PUN silk is the waste of raw silk spun as fine 


^ cotton or worsted is spun. Schappe is the 
European name for the same. Filoselle is a 
French product of silk waste; noils being a by 
product of spun silk. European spinners of silk 
waste usually leave about five per cent, of gum 
in the yarns and use cheaper grades of silk waste, 
such as tussah, which is the reason schappe is 
often darker in color and cheaper than American 
spun silk yarns. The gum in silk will always boil 
out in the finished fabric, leaving that much less 
weight. 




Moth bursting from silk cocoon. 


24 



Classes : There are many classes of silk 
waste from which silk is spun. They are as fol¬ 
lows : 

All the cocoons that are defective from vari¬ 
ous causes, such as diseased larva; those from 
which the moth has escaped, etc.; the coarse, 
outer, loose covering of the cocoon, and the in¬ 
ner parchment-like skin left behind after reeling; 
wild silk cocoons that cannot be reeled; and the 
silk waste made during the raising of the co¬ 
coons, such as the first silk or floss spun byUhe 
worms in starting the cocoon and which is 
wrapped around twigs and leaves; and all the 
waste made during reeling, spooling and other 
processes in throwing. 

The cocoons come from many countries, 
Japan, China, India, Persia, Turkey, Italy and 
France, and furnish many grades of silk waste. 
These grades of silk waste, in turn, form many 
grades of spun silk, which if improperly mixed 
will cause uneven dyeing and streakiness in the 
finished cloth. 

Sizing: Spun silk comes in single thread, 
technically called singles, and doubled or tripled, 
called ply yarns. The figure denoting the num¬ 
ber of threads is written after the size, as 50/1, 
meaning fiftys single, 50/2, meaning fiftys two- 
ply, and 50/3, meaning fiftys three-ply. This is 
directly opposite to cotton, which has the ply 
number written before the size. It is important 
to note the difference in sizing spun silk in' singles 
and ply yarns. 

The standard for spun silk is the same as 
cotton, 840 yards to one hank of number one to 


25 


one pound. Spun silk is figured by the same 
scale as cotton, as far as singles are concerned. 
In ply yarns, however, spun silk requires the 
same number of yards as single yarns. For the 
reason that when spun silk is folded into ply 
yarns the thread used for folding is the size mul¬ 
tiplied by the ply number. For instance, a 50/2 
spun silk would be composed of two threads of 
100s single, and a 50/3 spun silk would be com¬ 
posed of three threads of 150s single. This 
would bring the folded yarn to the same yardage 
per pound as the single thread. For example, 
50/1 spun silk would be 50X840=42,000 yards 
per pound, also 50/2 and 50/3 would have the 
same number of yards per pound. This is the 
reverse to cotton, wool, worsted, etc., in figuring 
ply yarns. A skeleton scale is as follows: 


No. 1 spun silk 840 yds. per lb. 


a 

10 

a 

“ 8,400 “ 

a 

ii 

a 

20 

a 

“ 16,800 “ 

ii 

ii 

a 

30 

a 

“ 25,200 “ 

a 

ii 

a 

40 

a 

“ 33,600 “ 

a 

ii 

a 

50 

a 

“ 42,000 “ 

a 

it 

a 

60 

a 

“ 50,400 “ 

a 

a 

a 

70 

a 

“ 58,800 “ 

a 

u 

a 

80 

a 

“ 67,200 “ 

ii 

a 

a 

90 

a 

“ 75,600 “ 

a 

a 

a 

100 

a 

“ 84,000 “ 

ii 

a 


Continental System: The size is the 
number of 1000-meter skeins in one kilogram. 

Silk noil yarn is sized the number of “cuts” 
of 300 yards in one pound and 1600 yards for 
the run system. This is the same as the wool 
run and cut system. 


26 











Ft 6. / 



A/AT SM.*f (flflw) 


f;<? z. 



F/g 5 



ELBEftFEL O SU-H X 4 too 



Natural and artificial silk fibers sketched from highly- 
magnified micro-photographs. Fig. i, the double filaments 
of natural silk showing the adhering gum or serecin and the 
core or fibroin. Figs. 2 and 3 , comparative sketches of the 
magnified cross and long sections of two kinds of artificial silk. 


27 
















Chapter VI 


ARTIFICIAL OR SYNTHETIC SILK 
RTIFICIAL silk is a chemically manufac- 



tured fiber. It should riot be considered a 
substitute for natural silk, but should be grouped 
by itself, just as silk, cotton, wool and other fibers 
are grouped. Its usefulness to the textile manu¬ 
facturer is becoming more apparent every day. 

Products: Artificial silk can be manufac¬ 
tured in heavy stiff fibers to imitate horsehair; 
in flat, ribbon-shaped strands to imitate straw; 
and in fine, pliable filaments with a softness and 
lustre and touch rivaling natural silk. These 
threads can be made in continuous lengths of 
thousands of yards, or they can be made in 
short staple fibers, such as cotton and wool. 
They can be manufactured rough and dull, or 
smooth and lustrous, and in many variations of 
size, quality and texture. Some of qualities are 
Chardonnet, Pauly or Cuprammonium, Lustre- 
fibre, Stearn, Viscose, etc. 

Manufacture: The raw material used 

for viscose silk is a pure grade of sulphite wood 
pulp. This is first treated in sheet form with a 
solution of caustic soda to macerate the pulp. 
It is then shredded into fine particles. Then the 
shredded macerated pulp is treated with carbon 
bisulphide and this converts it into what is 
called cellulose xanthate, which is an orange- 
yellow water-soluble derivative of the cellulose. 
The cellulose xanthate when finished is dis- 


28 


solved in water to give it the spinning solutions. 

These solutions must be carefully filtered to 
remove the minutest particles of foreign matter 
and undissolved cellulose xanthate, as this 
would clog the minute openings through which 
the solutions are forced to form the filaments. 
After filtration the solution is forced by air 
pressure to what has been called spinning ma¬ 
chines and through the holes of the spinning 
nozzles. These nozzles are of glass or metal 
and are perforated with minute holes, the num¬ 
ber of holes varying according to size of thread 
desired. There are a hundred or more nozzles 
to a machine. 

Through these nozzles the spinning solution 
is forced into a setting-up bath that contains 
acid, which reacts with the cellulose xanthate 
by liberating the cellulose in an insoluble form. 
The solutions from the openings in the nozzles 
are continuous in length and make a bundle of 
filaments which subsequently form one thread. 
As the thread is formed it is drawn away from 
the nozzles into a spinning bucket or collected 
on glass rolls. It is then washed and dried and 
subsequently spooled, twisted and reeled into 
skeins. The thread may or may not be bleached, 
but it is usually dipped in a soap solution to im¬ 
prove the luster and “touch.” It is then again 
dried and, after inspection, graded and packed 
for market. 

Appearance: Under a glass artificial silk 
appears “weighty” with a high metallic luster, 
and composed of many clean filaments. The 
defect of artificial silk is its absorption of mois¬ 
ture and loss of strength when wet. When re- 


29 


dried, however, it regains its strength without 
losing its other qualities. 

150 denier is the commonest size sold and 
this size contains nearly thirty thousand yards 
to a pound and there are about twenty filaments 
to one thread. 

Sizing: The sizing of artificial silk is fig¬ 
ured on the basis of natural silk, the legal denier 
for which is a skein of 450 meters in length or 
hank weighing .05 grams or 9000 meters weigh 
1 gram. The equivalent in yards is figured as 
follows: 

450 meters equal 492.12 yards. 

In one pound there are 453.6 grams. 

In one gram there are 20 deniers. 

453.6 gramsX20 deniers=:9072 deniers in one pound. 

9072 deniersX492.12 yds.=4,464,513 yds. per pound 
1 denier silk. 

To find the number of yards per pound in 
any given size divide 4,464,513 yards by the size 
in deniers. 

Example: 

How many yards in one pound of 50 denier arti¬ 
ficial silk? 

Solution: 4,464,513-f-50=89,290.26 yds. per pound. 


A scale would be figured as follows: 


Yds. in 1 Denier 

4,464,513 -f- 

Deniers 

30 

_ 

Yds. per Pou 
148,817 

“ 

40 

= 

111,612.8 

a 

50 

= 

89,290.26 

u 

60 

= 

74,408.55 

n 

70 

— 

63,779 

u 

80 

nr 

55,806.4 

“ -T- 

90 

rr 

49,605.7 

“ -7- 

100 

m 

44,645.13 

U 

150 

= 

29.763.4 

U -T“ 

200 

m- 

22,322.56 

“ -T- 

300 

= 

14,881.7 

“ -7- 

400 

= 

11,161.28 

(( . 

500 

n= 

8,929 

n • 

600 

= 

7,440.85 


30 




Chapter VII 


SILK 


S ILK is the name of cloth and thread manu¬ 
factured from the fiber obtained from the 
cocoons of the silkworm. The making of silk 
probably originated in China. The name China 
is derived from Sisil which is the Chinese word 
for silk. China is said to have unbroken rec¬ 
ords which go back to between two and three 
thousand years B. C. and there are many refer¬ 
ences to the silkworm, seri-culture, silk weav¬ 
ing and silk embroidery. 



Raw silk filaments as shown under 
the microscope. 


31 








Production of Raw Silk: This is di¬ 
vided into two major operations called sericul¬ 
ture and reeling. 

Sericulture: The raising of the silk¬ 

worms is likened to farming, and is done in 
country districts. The silkworm eats large 
quantities of leaves of the white mulberry tree, 
so that acres of these trees must be provided. 
The wild silkworm lives on oak and other vari¬ 
eties of leaves, but the true silkworm must be 
fed on young leaves of the white mulberry tree. 
The worms are raised in large airy buildings 
not unlike our tobacco barns and the rows upon 
rows of mulberry trees running in every direc¬ 
tion resemble our tobacco plantations. 

In these buildings open shelves are built in 
tiers, the upper ones wider than the lower. The 
eggs when hatching and the worms in various 
stages of their breeding are spread on large, 
square sheets of white cardboard which are 
called “beds.” These simplify feeding, sorting 
and classifying the worms. As the worms grow 
they are sorted and spread on more beds of 
cardboard, for they grow so fast that a batch 
of eggs starting with one bed may cover fifty 
when ready for spinning the cocoon. When the 
worms are ready for spinning they are placed 
in shallow bamboo baskets, which are lined with 
mulberry twigs and leaves. 

Silkworm : The silkworm is the larva or 
caterpillar of a moth which has two main vari¬ 
eties, called “true silk” and “wild silk” moths. 
The most noted silkmoth of true silk is called 
Bombyx Mori, or mulberry tree moth. Of the 
wild silks tussah is the most noted variety. 


32 


The fiber is not wound in the cocoon, as in 
an ordinary ball, but in a series of figure eights, 
running lengthwise from end to end, so that 
every thread crosses the ends of the oval co¬ 
coon. When once started the winding of the 
cocoon is rarely stopped until the supply of fi¬ 
broin is exhausted. When finished, the double 
thread varies in length from 500 to 1300 yards, 
and can easily be wound off in a continuous 
thread. 

Composition of Silk Fiber: When the 
fiber is examined under a microscope, it is 
found to consist chiefly of two substances called 
fibroin and serecin. The fibroin is a horny kind 
of substance and forms the core of the fiber. 
Fibroin will not dissolve in boiling water. The 
serecin is on the surface of the fiber only, and 
is a natural protection for the fibroin. This is 
commonly called silk gum, and will dissolve in 
steam or boiling water. The proportions are 
about two parts fibroin to one of serecin in the 
natural fiber. The fibroin, though insoluble in 



33 




boiling water, is highly absorptive of moisture; 
it will absorb as high as 33 per cent, of water 
without feeling damp. When freed from the 
gum the fibroin assumes the appearance of pure 
silk. The waxy coloring matter disappears in 
the boiling with the gum. 

Reeling: Reeling formerly was accom¬ 
plished by hand on the silk farm, but is now 
reeled in factories, where close supervision pro¬ 
duces more evenly' reeled thread. The reelers 
buy the cocoons from the farmers, very much 
the same as a miller buys wheat. A miller 
grinds wheat into flour and a reeler winds silk 
thread into skeins from the cocoon. 

The cocoons are steeped in a tub or basin 
of hot water to soften the gum which sets the 
fiber free. The outside floss covering is then 
brushed off, and the end of silk forming the true 
cocoon is readily found. The single cocoon 
thread is too fine for commercial use, so five or 
six ends are picked up by the reeler and wound 
into one thread. The single ends of silk vary in 
thickness; the beginning and end of the cocoon 
are usually finer than the middle, so the sensi¬ 
tive touch of the reeler is depended upon to keep 
the reeled thread uniform in thickness. 

The five or six cocoon threads are run 
together on a reel, which skeins the silk. The 
operator sits in front of the tub or basin of hot 
water on which the cocoons float, and feels for 
the necessary amount of ends to make up the 
required size of silk thread. These are threaded 
through a single eye of glass or porcelain di¬ 
rectly above the basin. The object of reeling 
raw silk is to get enough twist in the threads to 


34 


make the single filaments into one thread. This 
is done by what is called a crossieur. This cros- 
sieur is accomplished in large factories by me¬ 
chanical means. The old method was to run 
two sets of threads through their respective eyes 
and cross each other by looping two or three 
times before going to their respective reels. The 
pair of threads lap each other about half way 
between the basin eye and reel eye. This twists 
the threads and the moistened gum on the fiber 
and melds them into solid threads. 

When reeled the threads are formed into 
skeins which are packed in bundles, called 
“books,” with so many skeins to a book, and the 
books are packed into bales for shipment. 

Sizing: There are two ways for sizing silk 
yarns; the French denier and the English dram 
system of measurement. The denier system gen¬ 
erally applies to raw silk and the dram system to 
thrown silk. 

The legal denier basis is a skein of silk 450 
meters in length weighed by a unit of five centi¬ 
grams (called denier), which equals .05 grams. 
The count is thus expressed by the number of 
deniers that 450 meters silk weigh. The equiva¬ 
lent in yards is figured as follows: 

450 meters equal 492.12 yards. 

In one pound there are 453.6 grams. 

In one gram there are 20 deniers. 

453.6 grams multiplied by 20 deniers equal 9072 
deniers in one pound. 

9072 deniers multiplied by 492.12 yds. equal 4 464,513 
yds. per pound for one denier silk. 

In the dram system the basis is a skein of 
silk 1000 yards in length and the unit of weight 


35 


1 dram. As there are 16 drams to 1 ounce, and 
16 ounces to one pound there are 16X16—256) 
256 drams in one pound. With 1000 yards to 
one dram there would be 256,000 yards to one 
pound in the dram system. 

To figure a basis for translating the length 
and weight from denier to dram system and 
vice versa, divide 4,464,513 yards (denier) to 
one pound by 256,000 yards (dram) to one 
pound which equals 17.44 deniers in one dram. 

Rule: To find the denier in a given drainage 
age multiply the drams by the number of deniers 
in one dram. Example: 

How many drams in a 14/16 denier silk? 

Solution: 14/16 denier=15 denier-h 17.44^.86 

drams. Ans. 

Rule: To find the denier in a given dram- 
age multiply the drams by the number of den¬ 
iers in one dram. Example: 

How many deniers in 1^4 drams? 

Solution: 1.75 dramsX 17.44=30.52 deniers. Ans. 

The nature of natural silk makes it impos¬ 
sible to reel an exact size. It is usual to reel 
five cocoons into a 13/15 denier silk. That is 
the size will average from 13 to 15 deniers. The 
usual sizes in which true silk is reeled are: 
10/12, 12/14, 13/15, 14/16, 16/18, 20/22, 28/30, 
etc. denier. There are finer and coarser counts 
reeled but they are of rare occurence. The 
count or size of silk is always given for the gum 
weight, that is, the weight before the gum has 
been boiled off. 

The cocoon basis for finding the size of a 
silk thread is used when a short length of yarn 


36 


only is available; for instance, a thread taken 
from a piece of silk fabric which would be too 
small even for the most delicate scales to weigh. 
In this case the filaments of the thread are 
counted, but it must be taken in consideration 
whether the gum silk or the boiled off silk is 
being examined, for the reason that the silk¬ 
worm spins a double thread, which when boiled 
and freed from the gum will open out into two 
ends. For instance, a 13/15 denier silk will con¬ 
tain five cocoon threads, which, when the gum 
is boiled off, will contain not five, but ten 
threads, or filaments. 

It is necessary to use a magnifying glass to 
count the filaments in a silk thread. They are 
very fine, but with a little experience a fair idea 
of the count in question can be arrived. It is 
customary to figure 1.3 denier for the de- 
gummed or single filament. 

Wild silks are much heavier than true silk. 
Five cocoon tussah filaments will average 35/40 
denier. 

When the gum or serecin is removed from 
silk it loses from 2 to 28 per cent, of its weight, 
according to the nature of the silk. When only 
2 to 5 per cent is boiled off the silk is called ecru 
silk. When 5 to 12 per cent, is boiled off the 
silk is called souple silk. When 12 to 28 per 
cent, is boiled off the silk is called soft silk. 

Raw silk comes into the market in bales 
packed with so many “books” to a bale. The 
following is a copy of a raw silk invoice: 


37 


Raw Silk Invoice 

Weight list of 10 Bales of Japan Raw Silk shipped 
per SS. Asia for New York on the (Date) . 

LOT NO. 100 


Net Gross Weight Gross 
Weight per Bale Weight 


Bale No. Silk 

Denier 

Books 

per Bale 

Exclud’g Mats per Bale 

1 

“Fuji” 

13.99 

29 

136.42 

139.25 

141.00 

2 


13.71 

“ 

136.42 

139.25 

146.00 

3 


13.90 

ti 

135.43 

138.25 

145.25 

4 

U 

14.18 

ft 

136.92 

139.75 

146.50 

5 

tt 

13.81 

“ 

134.69 

137.50 

144.50 

6 

ft 

13.91 


134.94 

137.75 

144.75 

7 

it 

13.89 

<« 

134.44 

137.25 

144.25 

8 

u 

13.81 

“ 

135.68 

138.50 

145.25 

9 

a 

13.94 

28 

130.48 

133.25 

140.00 

10 

“ 

13.84 

it 

132.83 

135.50 

142.00 



13.90 

288 

1348.25 

1376.25 

1439.50 


To determine how many yards in a 

bale of 


silk, find how many yards in the size (denier) 


per pound and multiply by number of pounds in 
bale. 


Example: 

How many yards in a bale of 13.90 denier silk 
weighing 135 pounds? 

Solution: There are 4,464,513 yards of 1 denier 
silk in 1 pound. In 13.90 deniers there would be 
4,464,513-i-13.90=321,188 yds. per pound. 321,188 yds.X 
135 lbs.=43,360,380 yds. Ans. 

Rule: To find dramage per 1000 yards re¬ 
duce the weight pounds and ounces to drams 
and divide by yards. 

Example : 

What is the dramage of 43,360,380 yds. weighing 
135 lbs? 

Solution: Reduce the weight to drams; 135 lbs.X 
256 drams=34,560 drams. 43,360,380 yds. pointed off 3 
units for 1000 yds.=43,360.38 yds. 34,560 drams-f- 
43,360.38=797 drams. Ans. 


38 








The following is a comparison table of 
avoirdupois and metric weights: 


Grains Drams Oz. Av. Lbs. Av. Denier Grams 


1.000 . 1.296 0.065 

27.340 1.000 . 35.437 1.772 

437.500 16.000 1.000 .... 566.990 28.350 

7000.000 256.000 16.000 1.000 9071.840 453.592 

0.772 . 1.000 0.050 

15.432 . 0.03527 .... 20.000 1.000 


The following is a table of yards of silk per 
pound in sizes 9/11 to 20/22 denier, calculated 
by dividing 4,464,513 yards by the average of 
the size: 


Average Size 
20/22-2054 to 2154 

207,651 

Raw 

to 227,537 yds. 

3% Shorting 
201,421 to 220,711 

16/18-16^4 

“ 1754 

255,100 

“ 270.600 “ 

247,400 

“ 262,500 

IS/17-15J4 

“ 1654 

270,600 

“ 288.000 “ 

262,500 

“ 279,400 

14/16-1452 

“ 15J4 

288,000 

“ 307,900 “ 

“ 330,700 “ 

279,400 

“ 298,700 

13/15-13 54 

“ 1454 

307,900 

298,700 

“ 320,800 

12/14-1254 

“ 1354 

330,700 

“ 357,100 “ 

320,800 

“ 346,400 
“ 376,600 

11/13-1154 

“ 1254 

357,100 

“ 388,200 “ 

346,400 

10/12-1054 

“ H54 

388,200 

“ 425,200 “ 

376,600 

“ 412,400 

9/11- 954 

“ 1054 

425,200 

“ 469,900 “ 

412,400 

“ 455,800 



39 










Chapter VIII 
THROWN SILK 

S ILK throwing is the process of twisting and 
doubling the threads. As we have seen, true, 
silk is in a continuous thread when spun by the 
silkworm. The object of throwing silk is to 
increase its strength by twisting and doubling. 
There are a number of variations of these, ac¬ 
cording to the purpose for which the silk is to 
be used. 

If silk is to be used for warp, which must 
stand the action of the loom during weaving, the 


Japanese girl reel¬ 
ing raw silk by hand 
in a primitive way. 



40 





threads are twisted much more than silk used 
for filling. Silk thrown for warp is twisted in 
the single thread and after being doubled. The 
purpose of a filling thread often is to fill up the 
body of the fabric so the threads are folded in 
greater numbers, with very little twist and only 
twisted after being doubled. In some fabrics, 
such as crepes, voiles, etc., however, a very 
dense twist is required. The twist in a thread 
is determined by the number of turns or twists 
per inch. The class of fabric determines the 
amount of twists and number of threads 
doubled. 

Nearly all skein dyed silk must be thrown 
because single thread silk in the raw will not 
stand dyeing before weaving. Single silk in the 
raw can be woven and dyed after weaving. Be¬ 
fore dyeing the gum or part of the gum must be 
boiled off, technically called degumming. The 
silk is subjected to so many baths and processes 
in dyeing that the fibers are opened and the 
thread weakened too much for weaving the 
single thread. 

Before the silk is thrown it is technically 
called “raw silk”; after throwing it is known as 
“hard silk.” When degummed, that is, when the 
gum has been boiled off, it is called “boil off” 
or “soft silk”; when dyed it is known as “dyed 
silk.” Also, thrown silk takes on technical 
names to designate the different sizes thrown. 
Silk thrown for warp is called “organize” or 
“organ” with the number of threads written be- 
bore, as: 2-thread organ, 3-thread organ, etc. 
Silk thrown for weft or filling is called “tram” 


41 


and is written: 3-thread tram, 4-thread tram, 


etc. Silk thrown for crepe is called crepe twist. 

In the process of throwing there is a small 
amount of waste. The amount varies according 
to the supervision and efficiency of the plant. 
Also, silk when twisted shrinks in length, which 
is called “take-up ’ in twist. Again, silk shrinks 
a small per cent, when being dyed. These losses 
must be allowed for when calculating the weight 
and length of thrown silk. The following table 
shows the general sizes of silk thrown for wov¬ 


en fabrics, together with the turns per inch and 
percentage of loss usually allowed, and yards 


per skein: Take 

Throw- Up Shrink- 
sters in age 
Waste Twist in Dye Total 
How Turns Yards per Per Per Per Loss 
Size Thrown per Inch Skein Cent. Cent. Cent. Per Cent. 


2th. 

Organ 

16/14 (2 twists) 

20,000 

3 

3 

2 

8 

3th. 

14/12 

15,000 

it 

3 

2 

8 

2th. 

Crepe 

40 (single) 

spools 

it 

8 

_ 

11 

2th. 

60 

(dyed 

it 

11 

_ 

14 

2th. 

• “ 

65 

after 

a 

12 

_ 

15 

2th. 

“ 

75 “ weaving) 

it 

13 

_ 

16 

3th. 

U 

40 

a 

it 

10 

_ 

13 

3th. 


65 

a 

a 

14 

_ 

17 

4th. 

4t 

40 

a 

a 

10 

_ 

13 

4th. 


65 

it 

it 

14 

_ 

17 

3 th. 

Voile 

30/32 (2 twists) 

a 

a 

9 

_ 

12 

2th. 

Tram 

4 (single) 

10,000 

a 

1 

2 

6 

3 th. 

41 

3 

7,500 

a 

1 

2 

6 

4th. 

44 

3 

5,000 

a 

1 

2 

6 

5th. 

** 

2J4 “ 

2,500 

a 

1 

2 

6 


The following table gives the drams per 
1000 yards. 


Thread Denier 

1 Grege 13/15-14 

1 “ 14/16-15 -r- 

20/22-21 ~ 

Organ 10/12-11X2=22-=- 

12/14-13X2=26-7- 
13/15-14 X 2=28-f- 
10/12-11 X 3=33-£- 
12/14-13X3—39-7- 
13/15-14X3=42-7- 

2- 75T. Crepe 13/15-14X2=28-^ 

3- 65T. “ 13/15-14X3=42-f- 

4- 65T. “ 13/15-14X4=56-7- 

3 Voile 13/15-14X3=42-7- 

2 Tram 13/15-14X2=28-*- 

3 “ 13/15-14X3=42-f- 

4 “ 13/15-14X4=56-7- 

5 “ 13/15-14X5=70-*- 


Deniers in Net Loss Dram- 
1 Dram. Drams. % age 
-7-17.44= .805 
“ = .863 

“ = 1.20 

“ =1.26 X 1.08=1.36 
“ =1.49 XI.08=1.61 

“ =1.605X1.08=1.73 
“ =1.89 X 1.08=2.04 

“ =2.23 X 1.08=2,41 
“ =2.41 X 1.08=2.60 
“ =1.605X1.16=1.86 
“ =2.41 XI.17=2 82 

“ =3.21 X 1.17=3.76 
“ =2.41 X 1.12=2.70 
“ =1.605X1.06=1.70 
“ =2.41 X 1.06=2.56 

“ =3.21 X 1.06=3.41 
“ =4.01 X 1.06=4.26 


42 











When sending raw silk to the throwster to 
be thrown, it is advisable to send a copy of the 
weight invoice and any tests or conditioning 
house reports, together with instructions as to 
size of thread desired, number of turns per 
inch, and amount of yards per skein, shipping, 
etc. For example, we can take copy of raw silk 
invoice on page 38 and issue instructions as 
follows: 

“Kindly throw for us Lot 100, 10 bales 
“Fuji,” averaging 13.90 denier, net weight 
1348.25 lbs., as per inclosed invoice. Instruc¬ 
tions as follows: 5 bales to be thrown into 3- 
thread tram, 3 turns per inch, 7,500 yd. skeins, 
and 5 bales to be thrown into 4-thread tram, 3 
turns per inch, 5,000 yd. skeins.” 

Then the problem would be to determine 
how many skeins and what dramage should be 
returned from the throwster. First find the 
number of yards per pound in 13.90 denier silk. 

4,464,513 yds. per lb. in one denier in 13.90 denier divide : 
4,464,513-7-13.90=321,188 yds. per lb. in 13.90 denier silk. 
321,188 yds.X 1348.25 lbs.=433,041,721 yds. less 4% ( 3 % 
throwster waste and 1% take up in twist) =415,- 
720,052 yds. total returned. 

In five bales there would be half the num¬ 
ber of total yards, or 207,860,026 single yards in 
each size. For the 3thd. divide the single yards 
by 3, for the 4thd. divide the single yards by 4. 

3thd. 207,860,026-^3=69,286,675 yds. of 3thd. with 7,500 
yds. skeins equals; 

69,286,675-7-7500=9238.22 skeins to be returned. 

4thd. 207,860,026-^4=51,965,006 yds. of 4thd. with 5,000 
yds. skeins; 

51,965,006-^-5000=10,393 skeins to be returned. 


43 


To find the drams per 1000 yards reduce 
the weight to drams. 

1348.25 lbs.X256 drams=345,152 drams total. Half or 5 
bales would be 345,152-^2=172,576 drams in each 
thread ordered thrown. 

3- thread tram has 172,576 drams-h69,286 (675) yds. 

(point off 3 places for the 1000 yds.) =2.49 drams. 

4- thread tram has 172,576 drams-KS 1,965.006 yds.=3.32 

drams. 

Throwster's Invoice 
Thrown silk when received from a throw¬ 
ster, or when purchased in the market, is in¬ 
voiced on lines of the following copy: 

Date... 

Messrs. 


We ship by express 


vv Jiup uy 

Japan Filature, 

2thd. Organ. 

16/14 Turns. 

20,000 yd. 


Skeins. Drams 1.75. 




Net 

Bundle No. 

Rolls 

Skeins 

Weight 

1 

90 

180 

25 01 

2 

90 

180 

24 15 

3 

90 

180 

24 14 

4 

90 

180 

25 00 

5 

90 

180 

25 01 



900 

125 00 


To check the invoice count the bundles, 
then the rolls in the bundles, open several rolls 
to see if the number of skeins are correct in the 


rolls and weigh the silk. 

To prove that 1.75 drams are correct, re¬ 
duce weight to drams and divide by total num¬ 
ber of yards. 

125 lbs.X256 drams=32,000 drams. 

900 skeinsX20,000 yards=8,000,000 yds. 

32,000 drams-hl 8,000 yds.=1.77 drams 
point 3 units for 1,000 yds. per dram. 


44 






Conditioning ovens and scales for determining 
the amount of moisture and gum in the silk. 


Chapter IX 
SILK TESTING 

TN THE past there were many disputes be- 
tween buyers and sellers of raw and thrown 
silk. The buyer, when his silk turned out poor, 
or fell short of his requirements, would claim 
the quality of the silk had been misrepresented, 
or the weight was short, or the size was incor¬ 
rect; or, in other words, that he had been 
cheated. The seller, on the other hand, would 
reiterate the fact that the silk in question had 
been made up in Japan or China, or wherever 
the silk had come from, and he had sold the silk 
as represented to him. 

Silk, it is true, is an uncertain commodity, 
it being an animal growth, varying with each 
season’s crop, and capable of absorbing 33 per 
cent, moisture, which affects the weight consid¬ 
erably. But silk with the same grade mark and 


45 









the same chop label varies continually, some¬ 
times getting worse in quality. Then a new 
grade with a new chop label appears at a higher 
price. This variation led to the present applica¬ 
tion of the scientific methods now employed in a 
testing and conditioning house. 

A testing and conditioning house is a prac¬ 
tical laboratory with delicate instruments for 
testing yarns and fabrics for quality and quan¬ 
tity. The term “conditioning” means taking out 
all possible moisture by drying the sample yarn 
or fabric in an oven and weighing when bone 
dry. Then the weight is calculated by adding 
the percentage of moisture a yarn or fabric 
should contain when normal. In silk 11 per 
cent, has been found to be the correct amount 
of moisture, and 2 per cent, more is added to 
calculate throwsters’ clearances on invoice 
weight. In wool and worsted the amount of 
moisture is 18 per cent., in cotton 8^4 per cent., 
in noils 14 to 16 per cent., and in flax and hemp 
12 per cent. 

Other tests are as follows: 

In silk a boil-off test is made to determine 
the correct amount of cerecin or gum the silk 
contains. This is done by boiling off a number 
of test skeins from one or more bales of silk 
and weighing when dried. The amount of loss 
of weight is considered the amount of gum. 

The size or fineness of the thread is tested 
by taking a number of skeins at random from 
various parts of the bale or bales and reeling 
450 meters of silk, which is then weighed in den- 
iers. In thrown silk 1000 yards would be reeled 
and weighed in drams. 


46 


The strength and stretching power of silk 
is tested, which is technically called “tenacity” 
and “elasticity’ tests. Tenacity is the weight or 
force necessary to break a silk thread, and is ex¬ 
pressed in grams. Elasticity is the amount of 
stretch a silk thread will stand before breaking, 
and is expressed in the number of millimeters 
of stretch in a meter length of thread. 



The test for winding to determine 
how the silk will run in throwing. 


A test for winding is to determine how the 
silk will wind in the mill. A number of un¬ 
soaked skeins are wound at a standard speed for 
one hour and the number of breaks recorded. 
This test is regarded as an indication of how the 
silk will run during the operations in the mill. 

A measuring test is made on skeins of silk 
coming from the throwster, to determine the 
correct yardage in each skein. 

Also, a test is made to determine the num¬ 
ber and uniformity of the turns per inch in 
twisted yarns. 

These and other tests are charged for by 
the conditioning house, who will forward any 
information regarding them. 


47 









Silk Box Loom. 


BOOK 2 


48 















Chapter I 
FABRICS 

TjVVBRICS appear to have been made in pre- 
historic ages. Specimens of cloth have been 
found amongst the relics of people of the stone 
age. As a covering for the body, human beings 
early devised cloth of some material. The no¬ 
madic and pastoral tribes made cloth from the 
hair and wool shorn from their herds and flocks. 
The ancient Egyptians raised flax and produced 
the finest of linens. The natives of India made 
fine cloths from cotton. And the Chinese for 
centuries made of silk the most beautiful 
fabrics. 

The making of cloth has been called weav¬ 
ing, which is the interlacing of threads of yarn 
into patterned webs. Every woven fabric, to 
the most intricate patterned web, only consists 
of two sets of threads. The set running length¬ 
wise in the fabric is called the “warp,” and the 
set running crosswise in the fabric is called the 
“weft,” or filling. The warp usually runs in a 
number of threads from a beam or roll through 
the harness, reed and loom. The filling is in¬ 
serted in a shuttle which travels between the 
warp threads, and after weaving is called 


49 




“picks.” The loom is a machine for weaving 
cloth. Fitted to the loom are—beams or rolls 
which hold and release the warp; the harness 
which raises and lowers the threads; the reeds 
which fix the density of the threads; and the 
shuttle which carries the filling. 

A pattern web or pattern is the result of 
the interlacing of warp and filling. In ancient 
times this was done by stretching warp threads 
between two fixed rods and working the filling 
in and out of the threads with a needle or the 
fingers. This is still done in making rugs in 
Persia. Silk has long been woven on looms 
which automatically raise and lower the warp 
threads and shoot the shuttle containing the fill¬ 
ing between. As the threads close, the loom 
beats or presses the filling thread close to the 
preceding “shoot” of filling, making what is 
called “picks.” The warp threads open again 
for the next shoot of filling, but in a different 
formation, and these different formations make 
the pattern. The least number of warp threads 
and filling picks it takes to make a complete pat¬ 
tern is called the “repeat” of the weave. The 
weave is the particular way of working the 
threads into a web. A pattern is the result of 
interlacing the warp and filling by one or more 
weaves. 

Weaves: There are three weaves that 

form the foundation of all woven fabrics. They 
are called taffeta, twill and satin. 

The tabby, taffeta, or sarcenet weave is the 
most simple interlacing of warp and filling of 
all webs. It is done by raising half (every other 


50 


Warp Threads 



Diagram No. I. Taffeta weave drawing-in draft for the 
harness; point paper design; repeat of weave, and interlace¬ 
ments of the warp and filling. 

thread) and lowering half the number of warp 
threads, thus forming an opening called the 
“shed,” through which the filling passes, making 
one pick. After the filling has passed through 
once the upper half is lowered and the lower 
half is raised and the filling passes through for 


51 











































































the next pick. This is done continuously 
throughout the weave. 

Harness: The warp threads are raised 
and lowered by means of cotton or metal hed- 
dles called harness, which means harnessing the 
warp to do the required work. There are two 
distinct sets of harness, one for the jacquard 
machine for intricate patterns and one called 
“shaft harness” for plain weaves. Shaft har¬ 
ness derives its name from the two shafts of 
wood or metal, one across the top and one across 
the bottom, to which the heddles are attached. 
A heddle is a lease of cotton or a flat strip of 
metal (usually steel) attached to these shafts, 
which have an opening or an eye in the middle 
through which a warp thread passes. There 
must be the same number of heddles in a har¬ 
ness as there are warp threads in the warp. 

A taffeta weave could be woven on two har¬ 
nesses, one to each half the number of warp 
threads; but this is impractical, because the 
warp threads would chafe one another and 
break, especially near the selvage; also the fab¬ 
ric would be unevenly covered. For this rea¬ 
son four or more harnesses are used, though 
half the number of harnesses must work as one. 
The higher textured the fabric, which means the 
denser the threads are to the inch, the more har¬ 
nesses are required. See diagram 1. 

Twills: Twills, croise, or serge weaves 
are are woven so as to produce running lines in 
an oblique or diagonal direction across the fab¬ 
ric. This is done by raising and lowering the 
harness in rotation, as first 1, then 2, then 3, 


52 


etc. This is a looser fabric than taffeta, because 
of the less interlacing of warp and filling. The 
least number of harnesses a twill may be de¬ 
signed on is three; after that any number can 
be used. There are many variations of the twill 
weave. Right and left twills, broken twills, 



PomT Vaper 
D ESlpn 


Diagram No. 2. *— 2 right twill 

weave, 3 shafts; 2 repeats each way. 
1 — 2 means 1 up and 2 down. 


even and uneven sided twills, etc. In even sided 
twills warp and filling show evenly, providing 
counts and texture are the same. In uneven 
sided twills (that is, where the weave shows dif¬ 
ferent on either side of the fabric), the warp or 


53 












































the filling predominates in the weave. (See dia¬ 
grams 2 and 3.) 

Satins : There are several varieties of 
satin weaves. The most common are 5 leaf or 
shaft, and 8 shaft satins. 



Diagram No. 3. 2 —j left twill 
weave, 4 shafts; 2 repeats each way. 
2 —2 means 2 up and 2 down. 


Satin is the most lustrous of all weaves, for 
it gives full display to the pearly luster of silk. 
It produces a one-sided fabric by throwing 
4/5ths or 7/8ths or a like proportion of warp on 
one side of the fabric, which is usually the face. 
This is done by arranging the harness so that 


54 












































the filling passes over one thread and under 
four, or over one and under seven warp threads, 
as the case may be. The points of interlacing 
must be distributed well over the repeat of the 
weave, so that the floating ends adjoining cover 
the points where warp and filling meet. In a 



Repeat - I - | - 11 I " 

of ■ H fin: 

weave 

Diagram No. 4. 1 — 4 five shaft 

satin, reverse side; two repeats each 
way. 

five-shaft satin, on the first pick (filling), the 
first warp thread is raised, on the second pick 
the third warp thread is raised, on the third pick 
the fifth thread, on the fourth pick the second 
thread, and on the fifth pick the fourth thread, 
that is, the rotation would be 1-3-5-2-4 warp 


55 




































threads. On an 8-shaft satin the rotation of 
warp threads would be 1-4-7-2-5-8-3-6, which il¬ 
lustrates how 8 figures can be distributed to af¬ 
fect a covering for their joinings. A good satin 
shows no joinings of warp and filling. (See dia¬ 
gram 4.) 

The lowest number of harnesses a satin can 
be woven with is five. 

Point Paper: Point paper, called textile 
designing or draughting paper is used for copy¬ 
ing or draughting a weave or design. This pap¬ 
er conies with its surface ruled in numberless 
horizontal and vertical lines which form squares 
or rectangles. The space between any two ver¬ 
tical lines represents a warp thread, and the 
space between any two horizontal lines a filling 
thread. The small square where the vertical and 
horizontal lines meet is the point to be marked 
according to which threads are up and which 
are down of the warp and filling in that square. 
When a fabric has been woven, either a warp 
thread is on top and a filling thread underneath 
or a filling thread is on top and a warp thread 
underneath; one must cover the other. In 
draughting weaves the warp threads are usually 
marked and the filling left blank in the squares. 

Point paper comes ruled in endless combi¬ 
nations, ruled to correspond with different tex¬ 
tures of fabrics. But for the shaft harness de¬ 
signs the common 8x8 paper is mostly used 
For convenience in counting the threads and re¬ 
peat of weave, a heavy line is ruled every eight 
squares either way. 


56 


Fabrics with a face are usually draughted 
on the reverse side. 

The original term for shaft is “leaf,” as a 
“5-leaf satin,” and the reason the term “har¬ 
ness” is not used is because the fabric may be 
woven on double the number of harnesses re¬ 
quired for the weave. This is done to avoid the 
chafing and breaking of threads, and to produce 
a better cover of the filling. A 5-shaft satin 
may be, and often is woven on 10 harnesses with 
every 2 shafts working as one. No matter how 
many harnesses are used, the point paper would 
show only the shafts required to produce the 
repeat of the weave. 


Double jacquard ribbon 
loom for making brocades 
and novelty figured weaves. 



57 








Chapter II 


DISSECTING 

F ABRIC dissecting or analyzing is examining a 
piece of cloth to determine (1) the weave, (2) 
the warp construction, (3) warp material and 
size, (4) filling construction, (5) filling material 
and size. Because of the fine texture of silk 
fabrics, to do this, it is necessary to use a mag¬ 
nifying glass. 

Magnifying Glasses: These come speci¬ 
ally devised for this kind of work. There are 
elaborate instruments built on a small stand 
with magnifying glasses above a small table 
equipped with thumb screws for holding the fab¬ 
ric, and black and white plates for contrasting 
background, through which a mirror reflects 
light. There are smaller and less costly glasses. 
These fold for the vest pocket and come in metal 
which is cut in quarter, half and full inch 
squares, with the glass focused for the natural 
eye. They are called “counting” or “pick” 
glasses and loupes. Under one of these the 
threads, texture and picks become easy to count. 
Always count from the rear side of a two sided 
fabric. 

Determining Weave: To determine the 
weave it is advisable to cut the fabric at right 
angles and to pull out a number of warp and 
filling threads so as to leave a margin of un¬ 
woven warp and filling extended. Then move 


58 



Sample of fabric cut for convenient dissection and analy¬ 
sis. The notches are made to enable free raveling of warp 
and filling threads. Filling interlacements with warp threads 
shown at the upper right, where white threads are drawn 


away in the fringe of the warp. 


the next thread slightly from its place and fol¬ 
low it with the eye to see whether the thread 
lies on top or on the bottom. A long pointed 
needle, called a “pick needle,” is used for mov¬ 
ing the threads. Then mark on point paper the 
warp thread where it covers the filling. In a 
taffeta the warp thread would appear every oth¬ 
er pick. Follow the first warp thread until it 
appears several times, then pull it out and fol¬ 
low the second warp thread the same way, al- 


59 































ways marking on the point paper in which 
square the warp thread covers the filling thread. 
Do this with the next warp threads until the 
point paper shows a repeat of the weave. When 
the warp threads appear again on the same line 
on point paper the weave is being repeated. Fin¬ 
ally count the number of picks and warp threads 
before they repeat, and the weave will be dis¬ 
closed. 

Warp Construction : Warp construction 
takes in the number of threads per inch in the 
fabric; the number of threads per dent in the 
reed; the size of the thread; and the number of 
threads per end. In silk, the term “end” means 
the number of threads run together. For in¬ 
stance, there may be one end of 2 threads, or 2 
ends of 2 threads, etc., run as one thread. 

In counting warp ends the eye travels across 
the (horizontal) pick to ascertain how many 
threads show on that pick. If it were a taffeta 
weave the number counted must be doubled, be¬ 
cause half the number of warp threads are on the 
bottom or other side of the fabric and cannot be 
seen. If a three shaft twill were counted, the 
threads must be tripled; if a four or more shaft 
weave were counted the number of threads 
counted must be multiplied by the number of 
shafts the repeat of the weave calls for. This is 
why it is necessary to know the weave of a fabric 
before the warp construction can be determined. 

Assuming an ordinary quarter-inch counting 
glass was used on diagram 1, which is a taffeta 
weave, and the number of threads counted was 
20; how many ends would there be in one inch ? 


60 


To count the ends accurately cover with the glass 
one end completely before starting to count. 

20 ends counted in quarter inch would mean : 

20X2 (sides) =40 ends per ^X4=160 ends per inch. 

In diagram 2, which is 3-shaft twill, assume 20 ends 
where counted with a quarter inch glass, how many 
ends per inch? 

20X3 (shafts) =60X4 (quarters) =240 per inch. 

In diagram 3, which is a 2 up and 2 down twill, assume 
20 single or 10 double ends where counted with a 
quarter-inch glass, how many ends per inch. 
Solution : 20X2=40X4=160 per inch. 

Example: 

In diagram 4, assums 20 ends were counted with a 
quarter-inch glass, how many ends per inch. 
Solution: 20X5 (shaft satin) =100X4=400 ends per 
inch. 

Reeds : The next step is to find how many 
ends per dent in the reed. This is important, for 
it deterrhines the texture of the fabric. 

Reeds are made of thin, flat pieces of steel 
wire set in top and bottom pieces known as 
“ribs/’ The space between every two adjoining 
wires in the reed is called a “dent,” taken from 
the word “density,” as it is the purpose of the 
reed to fix the density of the ends per inch. The 
number of dents the reed contains in one inch 
determines the count of the reed. For example; 
if a reed has 60 dents per inch it is known as a 
60s reed; if 50 dents per inch it is known as a 
50s reed, etc. 

In narrow woven fabrics, such as ribbons, 
labels, hatbands, etc., instead of inches the French 
measurement of “lignes” is used. Lignes reduce 
the measure to finer points, for there are 11*4 
lignes in one inch, or, for translating one meas¬ 
urement to the other, the basis of 4 inches to 45 
lignes is used. Multiply by 4 and divide by 45, 


61 


or vice versa; this will give the calculation from 
one measurement to the other. The technical 
sign for inches is ("), for lignes 

A 60-dent per inch reed, in English trans¬ 
lated to French lignes, would be: 

60-^11^4=5.33 or 5-1/3 ligne reed. Or 60X4 (inches) 
=240-i-45 (lignes) =5.33 or 5-1/3 ligne reed. 

In the making of silk fabrics the reeds used 
generally average from 40 to 80 dents per inch. 
Reeds finer and coarser than these are excep¬ 
tional, and a reed coarser than 40 would easily 
be discernible to the natural eye. The warp 
threads are entered 1-2-3-4 or more ends in each 
dent. For example, a 60s reed with 2 ends per 
dent would have; 60X2=120 ends per inch, and 
a 60s reed with 3 ends per dent would have 60X 
3=180 ends per inch, etc. This being the case, 
how is it possible to find the dents per inch or 
size of the reed when the number of ends per 



Dissecting cloth sample with picking needle, thread by 
thread, to ascertain intersecting points of warp and weft. 


62 


inch has been found ? By dividing the number of 
ends per inch by 1-2-3-4 or more until the answer 
averages between 40 and 80. 

Example: Take diagram 1 where it was de¬ 
termined 160 ends per inch. 160-^2=80 reed. 
Also 160=3=53.33 reed, also 160=4=40 reed. 
Now the problem is to determine which of these 
reeds would be correct. 

If the fabric is held against a good, strong 
light, often it will be noticed that the ends are 
grouped together in 2s, 3s, 4s, and so on; they 
being divided by a faint streak made by the dent 
wire of the reed. Counting these groups or dent 
marks with a quarter inch glass would also de¬ 
termine how many dents per inch in the reed. 

Example: If 20 reed marks were counted 
in a quarter inch, that would mean 20X4 (quar¬ 
ters) =80 dents per inch. And 160=80=2 ends 
per dent. If 13 1/3 reed marks were counted in 
a quarter inch, what size would be the reed and 
how many ends per dent? 

Solution: 160 ends=53 1/3=3 ends per 
dent. 13 1/3X4"—53 1/3 reed. If 10 reed 
marks were counted in a quarter inch, how many 
dents per inch in the reed and how many ends per 
dent with 160 ends per inch ? 

Solution: 10X4=40 dents per inch in the 
reed. 160 ends=40=4 ends per dent. 

In fabrics of a dense texture the reed marks 
will not be discernible, though backed by the 
strongest light. In a case of this kind it would 
be reasonably safe to use the reed figuring near¬ 
est to 60, because that is the average of 40 and 
80. To be accurate, it would be advisable to 


63 


match the fabric with a known sample and work 
it out on a sample loom. 

In diagram 2 where it was determined that 
240 ends were in 1 inch would divide by 4. 240 
-=-4—60 reed, with 4 ends per dent. 

Diagram 3 would figure the same as dia¬ 
gram 1. 

In diagram 4. 400 ends were figured to 1 
inch. 400-^6=66 2/3 reed, with 6 ends per dent. 

This is technically written 66 2/3/6/1, mean¬ 
ing 66 2/3 reed, 6 ends per dent, and 60/4/1, 
meaning 60 reed with 4 single ends 1 dent. 


64 


Chapter III 

CALCULATING WARP 

"C'OR calculating the number of ends, the num- 
ber of yards and the amount and weight of 
material required to make a warp, the number of 
ends per inch is the factor. When the number 
of ends per inch has been determined, and the 
goods is so many inches wide, it is a matter of 
multiplication to find the number of ends required 
to make the warp. However, this is effected by 
the shrinkage in width during weaving to which 
some classes of goods are subjected. Some goods 
must be warped wider to allow for this “pulling- 
in/’ as it is called. For instance, goods 40 inches 
wide may have to be made 40^", 41", 42", or 
even wider to allow for contraction. 

Also extra ends are added to each side of 
the cloth to strengthen the fabric. These are 
called selvage or “edge ends,’” and are usually 
doubled, both in the harness and reed. 

In the following examples the net figures 
only are given, and the width is figured at 40 
inches. 

Diagrams 1 and 3, there are 160 ends per 
inch. How many ends in the warp? 

Solution: 160X40"=6400 ends. To this add 
80 ends (20/2 on each side) for the selvage. 6400 
—|—80=6480 ends in warp. 

Diagram 2 there are 240 ends per inch. How 
many ends in 40 inches? 


65 


Solution: 240X40"=9600 ends+80 ends 
selvage=9680 ends in warp. 

Diagram 4 there are 400 ends per inch. How 
many ends in warp? 

Solution: 400X40 inches—16000 plus 80 

ends for selvage=16080 ends in warp. 

After finding the number of ends in the 
warp, the next step is to determine how long the 
warp is to be made. The length of a warp is ef¬ 
fected by what is called “take-up,” or contrac¬ 
tion. In the interlacing of warp and filling the 
two systems bend around each other and this 
causes the woven fabric to be shorter than the 
warp from which it is woven. The word “warp” 
comes from the word “bend.” Different weaves 
have different take-up; the closer the weave the 
more bending of the thread and the more con¬ 
traction. Also, the heavier the filling the more 
the warp will have to bend to cover it. As a 
rule 10 per cent, is allowed for taffetas, 7 per 
cent, for twills and 5 per cent, for satins. 

In the following examples it is assumed 100 
yards of goods is required. 

Diagram 1. 6480 ends in warp. How long 
should warp be made to produce 100 yards of 
goods and what is the total number of yards of 
material required ? 

Solution: 6480 endsX 110 yds. (10 per cent, 
taffeta) =712,800 total yards. 

Diagram 2. 9680 ends in warp. How long 
should warp be made to produce 100 yards of 
goods and what is the total number of yards ot 
material required? 

Solution: 9680 endsX 107 yds. (7 per cent. 
twill)=l,035,760 total yards. 


66 


Diagram 3. 6480 ends in warp. How long 
should warp be made and what is the total num¬ 
ber of yards of material required? 

Solution: 6480 endsX107 yds. (7 per cent, 
twill)—693,360 total yards. 

Diagram 4. 16,080 ends in warp. How long 
should warp be made and what is the total num¬ 
ber of yards of material required? 

Solution: 16,080X105 yds. (5 per cent, 

satin)—1,688,400 total yards required. 

In all mill operations such as winding, warp¬ 
ing, quilling and weaving there is a certain 
amount of waste made. This must be added to 
the number of yards of material it takes to make 
the warp. The amount of waste varies according 
to the material; in what form it is received at the 
mill; and the supervision in the mill. Silk comes 
in skeins and must be wound on spools; cotton, 
wool, etc., often come on cones and spools al¬ 
ready wound. However, some figure must be al¬ 
lowed, so for warp allow 5 per cent, and for fill¬ 
ing 7 per cent. These figures may or may not be 
correct, but they illustrate the fact that something 
must be allowed for waste during the process of 
manufacture. 

In the following examples the mill waste is 
added to the yards of material required for warp. 

Diagram 1. 712,800 yds. plus 5 per cent.— 
748,440 total yds. 

Diagram 2. 1,035,760 yds. plus 5 per cent, 
(waste)=1,087,548 total yds. 

Diagram 3. 693,360 yds. plus 5 per cent, 
(waste) =728,028 total yds. 


67 


Diagram 4. 1,688,400 yds. plus 5 per cent. 
(waste)=l ,772,820 total yds. 

Given the total number of yards required to 
make the warp, the next step is to determine the 
weight. The weight of American yarns is usu¬ 
ally expressed in pounds, ounces and drams 
(avoirdupois) for large quantities. The weight 
in grains, drams, deniers and grams is generally 
used to calculate the size of the thread. 

Naturally the material and size must be de¬ 
termined before the weight can be calculated; 
then the number of yards per pound of the size. 

If material for diagram 1 were calculated in 
cotton singles, or spun silk the basis would be 840 
yds. per pound of size 1; if worsted, 560 yds. per 
pound; if linen, etc., 300 yds. per pound, etc. 
And the basis would be multiplied by the size to 
get yards per pound. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 
warp made of 2/60 cotton for diagram 1 ? 

Solution: 2/60 cotton equals 30s singleX 
840=25,200 yds. per lb. In warp 748,440 yds.-i- 
25,200 yds.=29.7 lbs. 

Raw silk may be calculated the same way. 
Divide the yards required to make the warp by 
the number of yards per pound in the size. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 
warp made of 20/22 denier raw silk? Dia¬ 
gram 1. 

Solution: 20/22 averages 212,596 yds. per 
lb. In warp 748,440 yds.-f-217,594=3.52 lbs. 

Thrown silk is generally calculated on the 
basis of drams per 1000 yds. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 


68 


warp made of 2 thread organ, 13/15 denier? 
Diagram 1. 

Solution: 13/15 denier averages 14 denier 
X2 (2thd. organ)=28 denier-f-17.44 (deniers in 
1 dram)=1.605 drams plus 8 per cent, loss in 
throwing)—1.7 1/3 drams. 

In warp 748,440 yds.XI-2 1/3 (drams per 
1000 yds.)=1297.296 drams-f-256 (drams per 
lb.) =5.067 lbs. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 
warp made of 60/2 spun silk for diagram 2? 

Solution: 60/2 spun silkX840 yds.—50,400 
yds. per lb. Diagram 2 in warp 1,087,548 yds.-r- 
50,400 yds.=21.58 lbs. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 
warp made of 20/22 denier raw silk for dia¬ 
gram 2 ? 

Solution: 20/22 denier raw silk equals 1.20 
drams (see scale). 1,087,548 yds.Xl-20 drams 
=1305.057 drams-^-256 (drams per lb.) =5.098 
lbs. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 
warp made of 150 denier artificial silk for dia¬ 
gram 3? 

Solution: 150 denier artificial silk has 
29,763 yds. per lb. Diagram 3 in warp 728,028 
yds.-i-29,763=24.47 lbs. 

Example: What would be the weight of a 
warp made of 2 thread 13/15 denier silk for dia¬ 
gram 4? 

Solution: Diagram 4 in warp 1,772,820 yds. 

’Xl-73 drams (per 1000 yds.) =3066.98 drams-^ 
256 (drams per lb.)=l 1.98 lbs. 

(Note: The materials given for these examples are 
for calculating purposes.) 


69 


CALCULATING WARP FOR NARROW 
FABRICS 


In narrow woven fabrics such as ribbons, 
hat-bands, woven labels, etc., the width would be 
calculated in French lignes instead of inches. 
The number of ends and dents in the reed is cal¬ 
culated at so many ends and dents per ligne. The 
reeds used are usually finer than broad goods, 
averaging from 50 to 80 dents per inch or rather 
from Ay 2 to 7 dents per ligne. The warp is cal¬ 
culated by multiplying the width in lignes by the 
number of ends per ligne. 

Example: If diagram 1 were 2 ends in a 7 
dents to a ligne reed and the fabric were 45 lignes 
wide, how many ends in the warp? 

Solution: 2y(7 —14 ends per ligneX45 

lignes=630 ends in warp. 

To this should be added ends allowed for 
pulling-in and the edge ends. 630 ends plus 8 
(4 dentsX2=8)—638 ends, plus 48 (24/2 ends) 
=686 ends in warpXHO yds. (length) =75,460 
total yds. plus 5 per cent. waste=79,233 yards in 
warp. From this point the calculation would be 
the same as broad goods. 


70 


Chapter IV 

FILLING CALCULATIONS 


TRILLING, weft, or “picks” is inserted by the 
shuttle, one to every revolution of the loom. 
The texture of the weft of a fabric is determined 
by number of threads, size of material and the 
number of picks contained in one inch. The filling 
in most weaves appears like fine ribs running 
horizontally across the fabric. The picks per 
inch are comparatively easy to count under a 
glass, and are calculated just as they are counted 
in the goods. Always count from the reverse 
side of an uneven sided fabric. 

There are two general ways of determining 
the size and number of ends, of a filling thread. 
The first is to take from a sample about twelve 
inches of complete thread. This should be done 
with a pick needle and magnifying glass, to make 
sure of a complete thread. Then place a small 
weight on one end of the thread to hold it firm, 
and comb the thread with the thumb nail, lightly, 
so as not to break the fibers, to take out all pos¬ 
sible twist. Pick at the fibers at the end furthest 
from the weight, and open them until they sep¬ 
arate into uniform threads. If the thread is more 
than three fold, keep the threads divided by stick¬ 
ing pins in the top of the table or desk, a pin to 
each thread. In this manner: 



71 




In silk the filling may be 2, 3 or more ends 
of a folded thread. For instance, there may be 
3 ends of 2 threads, 2 ends of 3 threads, 2 ends 
of 4 thread, etc., which are called doubled ends 
because of being treated on a doubling machine 
after being dyed and thrown. Doubled ends, 
however, separate very easily, and after being 
separated the threads must be opened into uni¬ 
form threads as above. Silk and artificial silk 
are the only two fibers that run in a continuous 
length; all other fibers are made up of short 
lengths, and will pull apart on opening. 

The second mill method of determining the 
size of a thread is to match the sample thread 
against a thread of known size. Every mill has 
or should have samples of various sized yarns. 
The usual method is to detach from the fabric 
as long a thread as possible and fold the thread 
as many times as possible. Then fold the known 
size of yarn the same number of times. For in¬ 
stance, say each thread, the thread in question 
and the known size thread, was folded 24 times. 
Then loop the two through each other and twist 
with the fingers, in this manner: 


By holding the twisted threads against a 
light any difference in fineness will be noticeable. 
If the thread in question appears finer, repeat the 


72 








process with a known finer size until the two 
threads appear the same. 

To ascertain the correct size of a silk thread 
it would be necessary to count under magnifying 
glass the cocoon filaments of each thread. To 
get the size in denier, multiply the number of fila¬ 
ments by 1.3, for Japan, 1.4 for Italian. In silk, 
however, especially silk for filling, 13/15 denier 
silk is mostly used, because the silk is too fine in 
single thread and can be doubled or folded to 
any degree of thickness required. 

Filling is always calculated by the width of 
the warp in the reed. If the goods to be manu¬ 
factured were 40 inches wide and the warp was 
made 40j4 inches wide to allow for contraction 
the filling would be calculated 40j/2 inches in 
width. To count the picks per inch, cover a full 
pick before beginning to count. Using an ordi¬ 
nary quarter inch glass, assume that there are 
counted 20 picks. 20 picks per quarter inch 
would give 20X4=80 picks per inch. 

The next problem is to find the total number 
of yards required. This is a matter of multipli¬ 
cation. If goods are 40 inches in reed, and there 
are 80 picks per inch, 40X80=3200 inches of 
filling in one inch of woven goods. This will 
also give the yards of filling in one yard of woven 
goods, for the reason that if there are 3200 inches 
of filling in an inch of fabric, to get yards of fill¬ 
ing in one inch of fabric divide by 36, the num¬ 
ber of inches in one yard, then multiply by 36 
to get yards of filling in one yard of cloth. 

Solution: 3200 inches in one inch of cloth. 
3200 inches-r 36=88.888 yds. of filling in one 


73 


inch of cloth. 88.888 yds. in one inch of clothX 
36 inches in one yard=3200 yds. of filling in one 
yard of cloth. The inches of filling in one inch 
of cloth will always equal the yards of filling in 
one yard of cloth. 

Filling does not bend or contract, as does the 
warp, because it is taken through the warp by the 
shuttle and laid straight across between the warp. 
For this reason the filling is calculated only by 
the required length of the goods. 

Example: Goods 40 inches wide, with 80 
picks per inch, 100 yards long and 7 per cent, al¬ 
lowed for mill waste; what are the total yards of 
filling required? 

Solution: 40"X^0 picks=3200 yds.XlOO 
yds. (length)—320,000 yds.X107 (7 per cent, 
waste) =342,400 total yards. 

When the total yards have been found, the 
weight is calculated the same as for warp. 

NARROW FABRICS 
In narrow woven fabrics the width is given 
in lignes, which must be reduced to inches to cal¬ 
culate the yards of filling required. 

Example: 

Goods 60 lignes wide, 80 picks per inch, 100 yds. long. 

Solution : 60"'X4"=240-M5'"—5.333"X 80 picks 
=426.64 yds. 

X100 yds. length=42,664 yds.X1.07 (7% mill waste) 
=45,651 yds. 


74 


Chapter V 

MIXED YARN FABRICS 

S ILK fabrics often are woven with a combina¬ 
tion of yarns, such as silk and cotton, silk 
and wool, silk and worsted, silk and spun silk, 
silk and artificial silk, etc. 

To dissect a sample containing mixed yarns 
it is necessary to know the natural differences of 
the fibers of the yarns. These are divided in two 
classes; animal and vegetable fibers. Animal fib¬ 
ers, as the word signifies, come from animal life 
and vegetable fibers from vegetable life. Under 
the heading animal fibers come true and wild silk, 
spun silk, wool, worsted, hair, etc. Under vege¬ 
table fibers come cotton, linen, jute, ramie, arti¬ 
ficial silk, etc. 

The ordinary mill method of testing these 
fibers is to burn them over a flame, either in the 
fabric or in the thread. Stiffened or starched 
fabrics should be well boiled in water before test¬ 
ing. Animal fibers, when burned, frizzle up and 
go out. Vegetable fibers quietly burn with a 
steady flame. To tell the different fibers it is nec¬ 
essary to take out the twist and open the fibers. 
Silk and artificial silk will have a continuous fib¬ 
er, while all the other fibers will be short lengths. 
Spun silk will have short lengths of true silk 
fiber, composed of cocoon filaments. Wool and 
worsted fibers are crinkly; worsted fibers are 
longer than wool. Sometimes a hard twisted 
spun silk will appear crinkly, when untwisted, but 


75 



Plate a .—Gauge reel. The silk threads are 
run through steel gauges to determine even¬ 
ness and cleanness. The threads running 
through the narrow openings in the steel gauge 
break at the thick and thin parts, the knots 
and nibs, and other defects too coarse to pass 
the gauges. The number of breaks indicates 
the quality of the silk. 


76 







if wetted will straighten out. Wool and worsted 
will remain crinkly. Wild silks will feel harsh 
to the touch and the filaments are much coarser 
than those of true silk. 

The difference in vegetable fibers lies in ap¬ 
pearance and length of the individual fibers. Cot¬ 
ton fibers are uniform in thickness and vary very 
little in length. Linen fibers vary in thickness 
and in length and are much longer than cotton 
fibers. Cotton, under a glass, appears twisted and 
flat, ribbon-like; but after being mercerized it ap¬ 
pears smooth and round, wire-like, with a silky, 
glossy look. Artificial silk is a continuous fiber 
and may be made of many filaments, like true 
silk, or be made of one strand to imitate straw. 
Artificial silk will burn very fast and leave no 
ash behind. Raw silk will burn fitfully, crisping 
up the ends as it burns. 

Silk, when dyed with a pure dye, will burn 
the same as raw silk. Weighted silk will burn 
slowly; the heavier the weighting the slower it 
will burn, and it will have a red glow while burn¬ 
ing, and leave a gray ash, the form of the thread 
or fabric. Silks are weighted with tin or iron 
diluted with acid to form a bath in which the 
silk is soaked. The amount of metal in the bath 
and the length of time the silk is soaked fixes the 
percentage, up to saturation point, of the amount 
of weight the silk will absorb. For this reason 
when weighted silk is tested, only the silk burns; 
the metal glows and remains in the form of the 
thread or fabric in gray ash. 

Raw silk is not twisted. Thrown silk is 
twisted so many turns to the inch. 


77 


After having tested the yarn the next step 
is to ascertain the size. In mills where the yarns, 
cotton, wool, worsted, linen, etc., are used con¬ 
tinually and in large quantities, they have speci¬ 
ally constructed scales and specially designed 
reels for weighing and measuring their yarns. 
The scales are adjusted to weigh in grains. The 
following is a comparison table of grains and 
avoirdupois. 

27.34 grains=l dram. 

437.5 “ = 16 drams=l ounce. 

=1 lb. 

7000. “ =256 “ =16 ounces 

The reels are varied according to the yarn 
used. But the purpose is to measure so many 
yards of yarn and weigh to determine the size. 
By reducing 7000 grains, one seventh will give 
1000 grains. By reducing the standard of a yarn 
one seventh, such as 840-^-7=120 yds., will give 
the same proportion. Then by weighing 120 yds. 
in grains and dividing 1000 by the weight, the 
size will be given. 

Example: What would be the size of 120 
yds. of cotton weighing 40 grains? 

Solution: 1000—40=25s cotton. 

To reduce the basis further take one seven¬ 
tieth (1/70) of 7000 grains, which would give 
100. Reduce the standard of yarn one seventieth 
(1/70) or 840-^70=12 yds. Then divide 100 by 
the weight of 12 yds. in grains to get the size. 

Example: What would be the size of 12 
yds. of spun silk weighing 5 grains? 

Solution: 100-^5=20s spun silk. 


78 


However, in mills where cotton, wool, wor¬ 
sted, etc., are used only at times, it is customary 
to match the sample with a known size of yarn. 
Any yarn merchant will furnish a reliable person 
with sample sizes of yarns. No other yarns can 
be made as fine as silk and the sizes vary so 
greatly that it is not difficult to determine the 
size. 

Warp : After determining the size the next 
step is to calculate the number of yards per 
pound for that size and divide the yards required 
by the yards per pound to get the weight. 

Example: Find the weight of a cotton 
warp, 160 ends per inch, goods 40 inches wide, 
length 110 yards, made of 2/100 cotton with 5 
per cent, mill waste allowed. 

Solution: 160 endsX40 inches=6400 ends 

XI10 yards=704,000 yards plus 5 per cent, mill 
waste=739,200 yards. 2/100s cotton—50s single 
X840 yds. per lb.=42,000 yds. per lb. 739,200 
yds. required-f-42,000 yds. per lb.=l7.60 lbs. 
Ans. 

Very often mixed yarn fabrics come with 
stripes of different yarns. These are calculated 
by the size of the reed and the number of dents 
of each yarn. 

Example: Assume a fabric striped with ar¬ 
tificial silk, spun silk and true silk; the reed 48 
dents per inch; the stripes one inch of each yarn; 
1" of 175 denier artificial silk, 1" of 60/2 spun 
silk and 1" of 13/15 denier silk, running in this 
rotation across the goods; the artificial 2 single 
ends per dent, the spun 2 single ends per dent and 


79 


the silk 6/2 (6 double) ends per dent. The goods 
require 100 yards. .What is the weight of each 
yarn? 

Solution: If 3 stripes measuring 1" each 
repeat across the goods 3" would be the repeat 
of the pattern. 

Reed 48 dents per inch-i-3"=16" and stripes 
of each yarn. Reed 48 dents per inchX16"=768 
dents of each yam. Which would be entered as 
follows: 

175 denier artificial 768 dentsX2 single ends per dent=l,536 ends 
60/2 spun silk 768 dentsX2 single ends per dent=l,536 ends 
13/15 denier silk 768 dentsX6 do’ble (12) per dent=9,216 ends 

48"X48 dents=2,304 dents 

Because of the difference in size of these 
yarns a different percentage must be allowed in 
the length of the warps, and the yarns must be 
made into separate warps. Assume the percen¬ 
tage allowed would be 10 per cent, for artificial, 
the warp would be made 110 yards. With 15 per 
cent, allowed for spun silk, the warp would be 
made 115 yards. With 5 per cent, allowed for 
silk, the warp would be made 105 yards long to 
produce 100 yards of goods. Also 5 per cent, 
for mill waste is allowed. 

Artificial; 1536 endsXHO yds.—168,960 
yds. plus 5 per cent mill waste=177,40S vds.X 
10 drams (175-5-17.44) =1774.08 drams-f-256 
drams per lb.=6.93 lbs. Ans. 

60/2 spun silk; 1536 endsXUS yds.=176,- 
640 yds. plus 5 per cent, mill waste=185,472 yds. 
required. 60/2 spun silkX840 yds. per \b.— 
50,400 yds. per lb. 185,472 yds. required-^50,- 
400 yds. per lb.= 3.68 lbs. Ans. 


80 



Silk; 9216 endsX105 yds.—967,680 yds. 
plus 5 per cent, mill waste=l ,016,064 yds.Xl-73 
drams (13/15 denier)=l 757.79 drams-f-256 
drams per lb.=6.86 lbs. Ans. 

Filling: In silk manufacturing, though 
often warps have stripes of different yarns, 
warps of silk will often have filling of different 
yarns shot through. 

The dissecting of such fabrics is done in ex¬ 
actly the same way as with all silk fabrics. The 
picks are counted and the width in the reed mul¬ 
tiplied by the number of picks per inch, then by 
the length of the goods required, until the total 
number of yards has been found. 

Example: Find the weight of 2/40 cotton 
filling in fabric containing 40 picks per inch, 
goods 40 inches wide, length 100 yards? 

Solution: 40 picksX40"=1600 ycls.XlOO 
yds. length=160,000 yds. plus 7 per cent, mill 
waste=l71,200 yds. required. 

2/40s cotton=20s singleX840 yds. per lb.— 
16,800 yds. per lb. 171,200 yds. required~16,- 
800 yds. per lb—10.19 lbs. Ans. 

Example: If the above fabric contained 
2/48s worsted instead of 2/40s cotton, what 
would be the weight? 

Solution: 2/48s worsted=24s singleX560 
yds.=13,440 yds. per lb. 171,200 yds. required 
-=-13,440 yds. per lb.—12.74 lbs. Ans. 

If the filling were woolen yarn and the run 
count were calculated, the size in runs would be 
multiplied by 1600 yds. per lb. If the cut count 
were calculated, multiply the size by 300 yds. per 
lb. Whatever yarn is found in the fabric, the 


81 


yarn should be calculated by the standard yards 
per pound. 

Occasionally a fabric contains two or more 
different yarns for filling. A fabric of this dis¬ 
position would be woven on a two or more shuttle 
loom, commonly called “box loom, ,, because the 
shuttles are operated in boxes at each side of the 
loom. 

To dissect a sample of this class it is neces¬ 
sary to pull out each yarn, test to determine kind 
of yarn, and match to determine the size. Then 
count the picks per inch; sometimes, though 
rarely, the picks vary for each yarn. After de¬ 
termining the picks per inch, take a rule, pre¬ 
ferably a steel rule, and measure the depth of 
each yarn. If the depth is too short to measure, 
count the picks of that yarn. Next note the ro¬ 
tation in which the yarns are woven. And cal¬ 
culate the proportion per inch for each yarn. 

Example: Goods 40 inches wide, 100 yards 
long, containing 4 picks of 40/2 spun silk and 6 
picks of 2/48s worsted, with a total of 40 pick 
per inch. How many yards of each yam would 
be required, allowing 7 per cent for mill waste? 

Solution: 4 picks, spun plus 6 picks, wor¬ 
sted—10 picks. Total 40 picks-^-10 picks=4 
picks, average. 

4 picks, average X 4 picks, spun =16 picks in 1 inch 
4 “ “ X 6 “ worsted=24 “ “ “ “ 


Goods 

Goods 


—h-u 

40'' wide X16 picks=640 yds. X100 yds. length=64.000 yds 
40 wide X 24 picks--=960 yds. X100 yds. length=96,000 yds. 


Spun silk 64,000 yds. plus 7 per cent mill 
waste=68,480 yds.^-33,600 yds. (40/2V840)= 
2.04 lbs. Ans. 


82 


2/48s worsted 96,000 yds. plus 7 per cent, 
mill waste—102,720 yds. required-^13,440 yds. 
per lb. (2/48=24X560) =7.64 lbs. Ans. 


83 


Chapter VI 


COMBINATION OF WEAVES 
ERY often there are two or more weaves in 



* the same fabric. The weaves may be in stripes, 
blocks, or, for shaft harness, small figures run¬ 
ning through the goods. These will be built from 
the three basic weaves, satins, twills and taffetas. 

To calculate the requirements for goods in 
this class it is first necessary to determine the 
dents per inch in the reed and the ends per dent 
of each weave. The different disposition of each 
weave will mean a division in the calculations. In 
stripes, blocks, etc., it is necessary to measure 
with a rule the width of each stripe, block, etc. 

Example: Assume a cloth with a disposi¬ 
tion; 60 dent reed; one stripe of taffeta 2 ends 
per dent, one stripe of twill 4 ends per dent, and 
one stripe of satin 6 ends per dent. The three 
stripes running in this rotation across the goods 
and measuring 1/3 inch for each stripe, or 1 inch 
for the three stripes. Goods 40 inches wide, 100 
yards long. How many yards of material will be 
required to make the warps? 

Solution: Goods 40" wide with 3 stripes to 
one inch, which is the repeat of the pattern, gives 
40 repeats of the pattern; also 40 stripes of taf¬ 
feta, 40 stripes of twill, and 40 stripes of satin. 

Reed 60 dents per inchX40" wide=2400 
dents in fabric. Goods are always calculated in¬ 
side the selvage. Also 60 dents per inch-f-3 


84 


stripes per inch—20 dents of each stripe. With 
the taffetas entered 2 ends per dent, the twill 4 
ends per dent, and the satin 6 ends per dent, and 
goods 40" wide, the ends for each weave would 
be calculated as follows: 

(Ends per dent) 

Taffeta: 20 dentsX40" wide=800 dentsX 2 =1,600 ends 

Twill: 20 dentsX40" wide=800 dentsX 4 =3,200 ends 

Satin: 20 dentsX40" wide=800 dentsX 6 =4,800 ends 

60 X40" =2400 “ 9,600 “ 

The different weaves must be made into sep¬ 
arate warps because of the different take-up of 
each weave. Take-up allowed 10 per cent, for 
taffeta, 7 per cent, for twill, and 5 per cent, for 
satin. If goods required were 100 yards the 
lengths would be calculated as follows: 

Taffeta: 1600 endsXHO yds —176,000yds. 
Twill: 3200 “ XI07 “ =342,400 “ 

Satin: 4800 “ X105 “ =504,000 “ 


Total 1,022,400 “ 

The weight requirements are calculated ac¬ 
cording to the material used. If the stripes are of 
different material they must be calculated sepa¬ 
rately. 

Combinations of weaves may run in various 
widths of each weave. That is, the weaves in the 
fabric may not be uniform in width. In cases 
of this kind the ends are put under the heading 
of each weave and totaled. 

Example: Goods 40 inches wide, 100 yards 
length, require, reed 60 dents per inch, with taf¬ 
feta 2 ends per dent, twill 4 ends per dent, and 
satin 6 ends per dent. The stripes measure and 
are headed as follows: 


85 







86 


machines. The first machine on the left is a second-time twisting machine 
on which the threads are twisted after having been doubled. The doub¬ 
ling machine is the second one. 








Wide 
Taffeta: 454" 
Twill: 54" 

Satin: 2" 

Twill: 54" 

Taffeta: 4" 
Twill: 54" 

Satin: 2" 

Twill: 54" 

Taffeta: 4" 
Twill: 54" 

Satin: 2" 

Twill: 54" 

Taffeta: 4" 
Twill: 54" 

Satin: 2" 

Twill: 54" 

Taffeta: 4" 
Twill: 54" 

Satin: 2" 

Twill: 54" 

Taffeta: 4J4" 

40" 

Taffeta: 1,500 d< 
Twill: 300 

Satin: 600 


Dents Taffeta 
per inch Dents 


X 

60 

— 

270 

X 

60 

= 


X 

60 

= 


X 

60 



X 

60 

= 

240 

X 

60 

= 


X 

60 

= 


X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

= 

240 

X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

= 

240 

X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

rr: 


X 

60 



X 

60 

rr: 

240 

X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

— 


X 

60 

= 


X 

60 

— 

270 


1,500 

nts X 2 ends per < 
“ X 4 “ “ 

“ X 6 “ “ 


Twill Satin 
Dents Dents 

30 

120 

30 

30 

120 

30 

30 

120 

30 

30 

120 

30 

30 

120 

30 


300 600 

: = 3,000 ends 

= 1,200 “ 

= 3,600 “ 


2,400 7,800 

The above calculation would be arranged in 

the following practical manner: 

Taffeta: 4" 

Twill: y 2 tf 

Satin: 2" 

Twill: y 2 "/7 " 

-total 5X7 ,,= 35" add 

Repeat: 5/35" times 

Taffeta: y >" added for 1st outside stripe 

Taffeta: 4X"/40" “ “ last “ 

Taffeta: 3000 endsXHO yds.=330,000 yds. 
Twill: 1200 “ X107 “ =128,400 “ 

Satin: 3600 “ X105 “ =378,000 “ 

The weight would be calculated according to 
the material used. 


87 



Chapter VII 
COLORS 


C OLORS and color effects come in endless 
combinations and change according to the 
dictates of fashion. The most common are stripes, 
checks and plaids. Most colors are woven with 
the silk dyed before weaving. However, some 
piece dye goods are woven with stripes of “cross- 
dye” or “fast-dye” which resist the piece dye or 
take on another shade while being dyed in the 
piece. This allows the fabric to be dyed after 
weaving, yet retain the stripes in different colors. 

No matter how woven, however, colors af¬ 
fect the construction of the warp. In the same 
weave different colors will be entered differently 
in the reed, according to the background, which 
is the color of the filling. The color of the fill¬ 
ing affects the number of ends per dent of the 
colors in the warp. For instance, in a fabric of 
taffeta weave, with stripes of red, white and blue, 
shot with white filling, the red and blue would 
have more ends per dent than the stripes of 
white. The white filling would enhance the 
white stripes and detract from the red and blue, 
so that more ends of red and blue would be en¬ 
tered per dent than ends of white. 

The weave must be taken into consideration 
when planning or dissecting the construction of 
warp with different colors. In the taffeta weave, 
the warp ends show the same on both sides of the 
fabric. In satins, the warp ends are shown on one 


side of the fabric and the fillings shown on the 
other. In twills, both of these effects are shown; 
on the even-sided twill the warp ends show on 
both sides of the fabric, and on uneven-sided 
twills the warp on one side and the filling on the 
other. For these reasons the warp ends of oppo¬ 
site shades to the filling would be entered more 
per dent in taffetas and even-sided twills than in 
satins and uneven-sided twills. To calculate in 
these classes it is necessary to determine the dents 
per inch in the reed and the ends per dent of each 
color. Then measure the stripes or the width of 
the color. If the stripes are too narrow to meas¬ 
ure, count the number of ends in the stripe. The 
next point is to determine how many times the 
same colors repeat. An illustration of the repeat 
of a color pattern is found in the American flag. 
The red and white stripes repeat six times and 
end with a red stripe. 

Example: Goods 40" wide, taffeta weave, 
60 dents per inch in reed, entered 3 and 4 per 
dent, containing 1 inch stripes of white, navy, 
light-blue, black and gold; shot with white filling. 
How many ends in warp? 


Solution: 



Dts. per in. 

Ends per dt. 

Ends 

1" white 

60 

3 

= 180 

1" navy 

60 

4 

= 240 

1" It. blue 

60 

3 

= 180 

1" black 

60 

4 

= 240 

1" gold 

60 

3 

= 180 

— 

— 


— 

5" 

Repeat 

300 


1,020 

X8 

X8 


X8 

— 

— 


— 

40" 

2,400 


8,160 


89 


A repeat of the color pattern will sometimes 
return to its starting point. For instance color 
1-2-3-4-5 and 6 will repeat back 5-4-3-2 and 1. 
In cases of this kind it is often necessary to 
halve the number of ends in the center color, to 
divide the number of repeats evenly. 

Example: Goods 44" wide, 60 dent reed, 
light colors 3 ends per dent, dark colors 4 ends 
per dent, filling white, 4 repeats of color pattern 
arranged as follows. How many ends in warp? 



Dts per in. Ends per 

dt. Ends 

Solution: 1" white 

60 

3 

= 180 

\ 1" navy 

60 

4 

= 240 

\ 1" It. blue 

60 

3 

= 180 

\ 1" black 

60 

4 

= 240 

\ 1" gold 

60 

3 

= 180 

\ 54" red 

30 

4 

= 120 

\ 554" 

330 


1,140 

Repeat back X2 

X2 


X2 

. 11" 

660 


2,280 

4 Repeats X4 

X4 


X4 

44" X 60 = 

= 2,640 


9,120 

Combination 

of Weaves 

AND 

Colors: 


Fabrics with a combination of weaves and colors 
are separated according to the weaves. Each 
weave will have a different take-up and must be 
made into separate warps. 

Example: Goods 36" wide, 60 dent reed, 
taffeta, light shades 3 ends per dent, dark shades 
4 ends per dent, twill 5 ends per dent, satin 6 
ends per dent. The color pattern arranged as 
follows : How many ends of each color and each 
warp? 


90 





Solution : 



Width of 


Ends 





color 

Dents 

per dt. 

Taffeta 

Twill 

Satin 

Taffeta: 1" 

White 

60 

3/1 

180 



Satin: 

White 

15 

6/1 



90 

Taffeta: 1" 

White 

60 

3/1 

180 



Taffeta: 1" 

Black 

60 

4/1 

240 



Twill: 

Black 

15 

5/1 


75 


Taffeta: 1" 

Black 

60 

4/1 

240 



Taffeta: x /^" 

Gold 

15 

3/1 

45 



Satin: *4" 

Cardinal 15 

6/1 



90 

Taffeta: 

Gold 

15 

3/1 

45 



Twill: 

Navy 

15 

5/1 


75 


Taffeta: *4" 

Black 

30 

4/1 

120 



6" 


360 


1,050 

150 

180 

Repeat 







back X2 


X2 


X2 

X2 

X2 

12" 

'l 


720 


2,100 

300 

’ 360 

repeats X3 


X3 


X3 

X3 

X3 

36" 


2,160 


6,300 

900 

1,080 


Taffeta warp as follows: 


White: 360 endsX2= 720 endsX3 repeats=2,160 ends 

Black: 600 endsX2=l,200 endsX3 repeats=3,160 ends 

Gold: 90 endsX2== 180 endsX3 repeats= 540 ends 

6,300 ends 

Twill warp as follows: 

Black: 75 endsX2=150 endsX3 repeats=450 ends 

Navy: 75 endsX2=150 endsX3 repeats=450 ends 

900 ends 

Satin warp as follows: 

White : 90 endsX2=180 endsX3 repeats=540 ends 

Cardinal: 90 endsX2=180 endsX3 repeats=540 ends 

1,080 ends 

Assuming the goods required to be 100 yards 
the calculation would be as follows: 

Taffeta: 6,300 ends X HO yds. = 693,000 yds. 

Twill: 900 ends X 107 yds. = 96,300 yds. 

Satin: 1,080 ends X 105 yds. = 113,400 yds. 


91 


902,700 yds. 



Color requirements would be as follows: 
White: 

Taffeta : 2,160 endsXllO yds.=237,600 yards 

Satin: 540 endsX105 yds.= 56,700 yards 


Black: 

Taffeta: 
Twill: 


Total 294,300 yards 

3,600 endsX 110 yds.=396,000 yards 
450 endsX107 yds.=: 48,150 yards 


Total 444,150 yards 

Gold—Taffeta: 540 endsX HO yds.=59,400 yards 

Navy—Twill: 450 endsX107 yds.=48,150 yards 

Cardinal—Satin : 540 endsX 105 yds.=56,700 yards 

The weight requirements would be calcu¬ 
lated according to the material used. 

Filling Colors: The filling is inserted by 
the shuttle, usually one color to each shuttle. The 
usual number of shuttles in a broad box loom is 
four, though sometimes as many as seven are 
used. The same number of shuttles is used for 
a change of colors in narrow-ware looms. How¬ 
ever, in looms built for weaving broche or effects 
like embroidery an additional series of small 
shuttles, called “swivels,” are used. 

In a fabric containing several colors of fill¬ 
ing the first step is to count the picks per inch, 
regardless of color. All the colors will usually 
have the same number of picks per inch. The 
next step is to measure the depth of all the colors 
before they repeat. It must be understood that 
the same colors must repeat in fabrics one hun¬ 
dred yards long. Then measure the depth of 
each color. 

To calculate the yardage requirements of 
each color of filling multiply the depth in inches 
by the picks per inch and divide by the depth in 


92 




inches of the repeat of the colors. This gives 
the picks per inch for each color. 

Example: Goods 40" wide, 100 yards long, 
80 picks per inch, with 8 inches repeat, arranged 
as follows. How many yards required for each 
Solution: 

Black Green Gold White 
Depth picks per" Picks Picks Picks Picks 


Black: 

2/ 2 " X 80 

= 200 





Green: 

W X 80 

= 

40 




Gold: 

54" X 80 

= 



40 


Green: 

X 2 " X 80 

— 

40 




White: 

X 80 

= 




200 

Green: 

X" X 80 

— 

40 




Gold: 

/ 2 " X 80 

— 



40 


Green: 

W X 80 

= 

40 




8"X80 picks 

—640 

200 

160 


80 

200 


Picks 


Repeat 


Picks per inch 

Black: 

200 

-f- 

8" 



25 


Green: 

160 

-f- 

8" 



20 


Gold: 

80 

-f- 

8" 



10 


White: 

200 

-i- 

8" 



25 








80 Total 





Length 




Picks 

Wide 

Yds. 


Yds. 


Yds. 

Black: 

25 X 

40" 

= 1,000 

X 

100 

= 

100,000 

Green: 

20 X 

40" 

= 800 

X 

100 

= 

80,000 

Gold: 

0 x 

40" 

— 400 

X 

100 

= 

40,000 

White: 

25 X 

40" 

= 1,000 

X 

100 

= 

100,000 


93 



Chapter VIII 

WEIGHT CALCULATIONS: SHORT 
METHODS 

Cotton and Spun Silk: A short method 
of calculating the weight of cotton and spun silk 
is to find the weight for 1000 ends, 100 yards 
long, for all size yarns. After finding the weight 
of 1000 ends 100 yards for number 1 cotton or 
spun silk, it is an easy matter to find the weight 
of the other sizes by dividing the size into the 
weight. The figures 1000 ends and 100 yards 
are equal to five points decimal. That is, point¬ 
ing off five places or units from the right will 
give the answer for 1000 ends 100 yards. 

The standard for cotton and spun silk is 840 
yards per pound. 1000 yards divided by 840 
yards per pound equals 1.1905 pounds. That is, 
1000 yards of No. 1 cotton weighs 1 pound and 
.1905 parts of 1 pound. If 1000 yards, which is 
the length of one end, weighs 1.1905 pounds 1000 
ends one yard long will weigh the same. So, if 
1000 ends one yard long weigh 1.1905 pounds 
100 yards long will weigh 100 times 1.1905 or 
119.05 pounds. The calculation is made in the 
following way: 

1000 yds.-^840 yds.=1.1905 lbs.XlOO yds. 
=119.05 lbs. It must be understood that there 
is no difference between 1000 yards of 100 ends 
and 1000 ends, 100 yards long. It is more con¬ 
venient to use 1000 ends, 100 yards long, because 


94 


warps, for instance, usually have a larger num¬ 
ber of ends than yards. 

To get the weight for 1000 ends 100 yards 
long for any size yarn divide the weight for No. 
1 by the size. 

No. 1— 

119.05 lbs. -r- 60s cotton = 

1.984 lbs. for 1,000 ends 100 yds. long 
119.05 lbs. -4- 20s spun= 

5.952 lbs. for 1,000 ends 100 yds. long 

That is, if No. 1 cotton or spun silk weighs 
119.05 pounds for 1000 ends 100 yards long No. 
60s cotton or spun silk which has 60 times as 
many yards per pound will weigh 60 divisions 
less. 


In this manner a scale could be made as 
follows: 


No. 

Cotton 

or Spun Silk 

Lbs. 

1 

1,000 ends 100 yds. = 

119.05 

10 

a 

“ “ “ = 

11.905 

20 

a 

“ “ “ — 

5.953 

30 

it 

“ “ “ — 

3.968 

40 

a 

«« « a —_ 

2.977 

50 

a 

a a a _ 

2.381 

60 

a 

a a a _ 

1.984 

70 

tt 

a a a _ 

1.70 

80 

u 

it ii it _ 

1.488 

90 

a 

it ii ii 

1.323 

100 

u 

ii a a _ 

1.1905 

These 

weights 

are net. The shrinkage and 


waste must be added. 

To employ the above scale, take the number 
of ends in the warp and point oft from the right 
three places, or units, and multiply by the weight. 
If the length is longer than 100 yards divide the 
length by 100, or point off two units in the length 
and multiply. 

Example: What is the weight of a 50s cot¬ 
ton warp, 100 yds. long, containing 3535 ends? 


95 









Plate c .—Silk Throwing. Doubling and 
spinning silk threads by the combination 
spinner-doubler machines. Two styles of 
machines are shown, which double the silk 
and spin it on one machine. 


96 



Solution: 3535-^-1000 (or point of 3 units) 
=3.535X2.381 (weight of l/50s cotton 1000 
ends 100 yds.)=8.42 lbs. 

Example: If length were 440 yds. long? 

Solution: 3.535X4.40 (length divided by 
100)=15.554X2.381=37.02 lbs. 

The same basis can be applied to calculating 
filling weights. 

Example: Goods 40" wide, 60 picks per 
inch, composed of 2/80s cotton. What is the 
weight of 100 yards? 

Solution: 40"X60 picks=2400 yds.-f-lOOO 
=2.40X2.977 (weight for 2/80s or 40s single 
cotton) =7.15 lbs. 

Example: What is the weight of 440 
yards ? 

Solution: 40"X60 picks=2400 yds.X440 

yds.=1,056,000 yds.-f-100,000 (1000X100) or 
point off 5 units=10.56X2.977=31.44 lbs. Or 
calculated: 

60"X40 picks=2400 yds.X440 yds.=l,056,000 

yds./lOO,000=10.56X2.977=31.44 lbs. 

Noils and Linen Cut Count : These have 
for their standard 300 yards per pound. Divid¬ 
ing the basis 1000 by 300 will give the weight of 
1000 yards and multiplying the weight by 100 
yards will give the weight for 1000 ends 100 
yards long. The calculation is as follows: 
1000^-300=3.3333X100 yds.=333.33 lbs. 

This is the weight of 1000 ends 100 yards 
for No. 1 yarn. Divide this weight by the size 
or count of the yarn to get the weight for each 
size yarn. Scale as follows: 


97 


No. Lbs. 

1 Weight for 1,000 ends 100 yds. = 333.33 
10 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 33.33 

20 “ “ . " = 16.67 

30 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 11.11 

40 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 8.33 

50 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 6.67 

60 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 5.56 

70 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 4.76 

30 “ <* “ << « « — ^ j 7 

90 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 370 

100 “ “ “ “ “ “ = 3.33 


American Woolen, Run Count: This has 
for its standard 1600 yards per pound. Dividing 
the basis of 1000 by 1600 will give the weight for 
1000 ends, and multiplying the weight by 100 
yards will give the weight for 1000 ends 100 
yards. The calculation is as follows: 
1000-i-1600=.625 lbs.XI00 yds.=6.25 lbs. 

This is the weight for 1 run yarn. The run sys¬ 
tem is divided into eights, quarters, halves, etc. 
The scale as follows: 


No. 


Lbs. 


1 

2 

3 

4 

5 


V% run wool for 1,000 ends 100 yds. 

.. 

Va 


50.00 

25.00 

12.50 

9.38 

6.25 
3.12 
2.08 
1.56 

1.25 


English Worsted: Worsted yarns have 
for their standard 560 yards per pound. Divid¬ 
ing the basis of 1000 by 560 will give the weight 
for 1000 ends, and multiplying the weight by 100 
will give the weight for 1000 ends, 100 yards. 
The calculation is as follows: 

1000-^560—1.7857X100 yds.=178.57 lbs. 

This is the weight of 1000 ends, 100 yards long- 


98 























for No. 1 worsted. To get the weight of any size 
yarn divide the weight of No. 1 worsted by the 
size or count. Scale as follows: 

No. Lbs. 


1 

worsted 

1,000 

ends, 100 yards 

— 

178.57 

10 

tt 

it 

H H 

tt 

— 

17.86 

20 

a 

tt 

a n 

tt 

= 

8.93 

30 

a 

a 

a u 

tt 

— 

5.95 

40 

tt 

u 

“ “ 

tt 

— 

4.47 

50 

tt 

tt 

u a 

tt 

— 

3.57 

60 

it 

a 

a a 

tt 

— 

2.98 

70 

ti 

U 

it tt 

tt 


2.55 

80 

tt 

a 

n tt 

a 


2.23 

90 

a 

n 

u (t 

tt 

— 

1.98 

100 

tt 

u 

tt tt 

tt 

= 

1.79 


99 












Chapter IX 


WEIGHT CALCULATIONS—SHORT 
METHODS—SILK 

T HERE are various short methods for calcu¬ 
lating the weights of silk. One method is to 
compile a table of the decimal parts of one pound 
for each size and thread. This is calculated from 
the denier and disregards throwing waste, take- 
up in twist, and mill waste, which must be added 
later. 

The method is to reduce the denier to drams 
and divide by the drams per 1000 yards in one 
pound. The calculation is as follows: 

12/14 deniers silk averages 13 denier-^-17.44 
deniers in 1 dram—.7454 drams-^-256 drams per 
1000 yds. per lb.=.00291 lbs.XlOO yds. (length) 
=.291 lbs. This is the weight for 1000 ends, 
100 yards of 12/14 denier silk, single thread. If 
the silk were two thread the weight would be 
doubled; if three thread the weight would be 
tripled, etc. The table is as follows: 


Size. 

Denier 

Sgle. 

2 thd. 

3 thd. 

4 thd. 

5 thd. 


10/12 

= 11 

.246 

.492 

.738 

.984 

1.23 

lbs. 

12/14 

= 13 

.291 

.582 

.873 

1.164 

1.45 

H 

13/15 

= 14 

.314 

.628 

.942 

1.256 

1.57 

a 

14/16 

= 15 

.336 

.672 

1.008 

1.348 

1.68 

u 

16/18 

= 17 

.381 

.762 

1.143 

1.524 

1.905 

n 

18/20 

= 19 

.426 

.853 

1.278 

1.704 

2.13 

it 

20/22 

= 21 

.471 

.942 

1.413 

1.884 

2.355 

a 

28/30 

= 29 

.650 

1.30 

1.95 

2.60 

3.25 

a 


To employ above table find total ends in 
warp or yards in filling, point off the units for 
1000 ends, 100 yards and multiply by the weight 
opposite the size silk used. 


100 



However, the size of silk in denier ranges 
anywhere between the two figures given. For in¬ 
stance, 13/15 denier silk will average anywhere 
between 13 and 15. That is why two figures are 
always given for the size. The halfway figure 
such as 14 for 13/15 denier may be too light for 
the average. Oftimes 13/15 denier silk will av¬ 
erage 14J/2, or 14.6, or even 15 denier. For this 
reason it is necessary to compute tables covering 
the different averages. Or, if only one table be 
used calculate on highest size denier to be on the 
safe side. 

The following table gives the weight for 
1000 ends 100 yards on half denier higher than 
first table. This is calculated by multiplying 
.0224, weight for one denier, by the average 
denier. 

Size Denier 1th 2th 3th 4th 5th 6th 7th 8th 

10/12=1154 .258 .515 .773 1.03 1.29 1.55 1.80 2.06 

12/14=1354 .302 .605 .907 1.21 1.51 1.81 2.15 2.42 

13/15=14^4 .325 .65 .974 1.3 1.62 1.95 2.27 2.60 

14/16=15^ .347 .694 1.04 1.39 1.74 2.08 2.34 2.78 

16/18=1754 .392 .784 1.18 1.57 1.96 2.35 2.74 3.14 

20/22=2154 .482 .964 1.45 1.93 2.41 2.89 3.37 3.85 

28/30=2954 .761 1.52 2.28 3.04 3.80 4.56 5.32 6.09 

The following table gives the weight for 
1000 ends 100 yards on highest figure of size. 
This is calculated by multiplying .0224, weight 
for one denier, by the size. 


Size Denier 

1th 

2th 

3 th 

4 th 

5th 

6th 

7th 

8th 

10/12=12 

.269 

5.38 

.806 

1.08 

1.34 

1.61 

1.88 

2.15 

12/14=14 

.314 

.627 

.941 

1.25 

1.57 

1.88 

2.10 

2.51 

13/15=15 

.336 

.672 

1.01 

1.34 

1.68 

2.02 

2.35 

2.69 

14/16=16 

.358 

.717 

1.08 

1.43 

1.79 

2.15 

2.51 

2.88 

16/18=18 

.403 

.806 

1.21 

1.61 

2.02 

2.42 

2.82 

3.23 

20/22=22 

.493 

.986 

1.48 

1.97 

2.46 

2.96 

3.45 

3.94 

28/30=30 

.672 

1.34 

2.02 

2.69 

3.36 

4.03 

4.70 

5.37 


Example: Warp 6942 ends, 100 yards long, 
composed of 2 thread organ, 13/15 denier. What 
is the weight? 


101 


Solution: 6942 ends~r-1000=6.942X*628 

(weight for 13/15, 2 thd.)=4.36 lbs. 

If the warp be longer than 100 yards, divide 
the length by 100, or point off two units from 
the right. 

Example: If the warp were 330 yards long, 
what would be the weight? 

Solution: 6942 ends-f-1000=6.942X3-30= 
22.909X*628=14.39 lbs. 

To compare this method with the longer 
method employed in the previous lesson under 
warp calculations, use the same examples. 

Example: Diagram 1. Ends 160 per inch, 
goods 40" wide, length 110 yards, selvage 80 
ends, material 2 thread organ, 13/15 denier, loss 
in throwing 8 per cent., mill waste 5 per cent. 
What is the weight? 

Solution: 160 endsX40"=6400 ends plus 
80 ends (selvage) =6480 ends-=-1000 (or point 
off 3 units) =6.480 lbs/XT-lO yds.=7.128X*628 
(13/15 2thd.) =4.477 plus 13 per cenr.=5.059 
lbs. 

Example: Diagram 2. Ends 240 per inch, 
goods 40" wide, length 107 yds., selvage 80 ends, 
material 20/22 denier, single raw silk, mill waste 
5 per cent. What is the weight? 

Solution: 240 ends per inchX40" wide= 
9600 ends plus 80 ends selvage=9680 ends-f- 
1000 = 9.680 X 107 (length) = 10.358 X *471 
(Weight for 20/22 denier, single)—4.879 plus 
5 per cent.=5.12 lbs. 

Example: Diagram 4. Ends 400 per inch, 
goods 40" wide, length 105 yds., selvage 80 ends, 


102 


material 2 thread, 13/15 denier silk, loss in 
throwing 8 per cent., mill waste 5 per cent. What 
is the weight? 

Solution: 400 endsX40"=16,000 ends, plus 
80 ends (selvage)=16,080 ends-^1000=16.08X 
1.05 (length)=16.884X-628 (2thd. 13/15 den- 
ier)=10.60 lbs. plus 13 per cent.=11.98 lbs. 

Filling Weight Calculations : The same 
basis can be used for calculating weight of filling. 

Example: Goods 40" wide, 80 picks per 
inch, 100 yards long, material 1 end of 4 thread 
13/15 denier silk, loss in throwing 6 per cent., 
mill waste 7 per cent. What is the weight ? 

Solution: 40" wideX^O picks per inch= 

3200 yds.-f-1000=3.20X1.256 (basis, 4thd. 13/ 
15 denier)=4.02, plus 13 per cent.=4.54 lbs. 

Another short method for calculating the 
weight of filling is to find the weight of one den¬ 
ier for 1,000,000 yards. On the basis of 1,000,- 
000 yards the decimal point would be six places 
or units from the right. The method is to divide 
1,000,000 yards by the number of yards of silk 
in one pound. The calculation is as follows: 

1,000,000-^4,464,513 yds. per lb.=.224 lbs. 
This is the weight for one denier silk. If the 
size of silk were 13/15 denier, averaging 14 den¬ 
ier multiplied by .224 will give the weight for 
1,000,000 yards. Calculation as follows: 

14 denierX.224=3.136 for 1,000,000 yds., 
or .314 for 100,000 yds., which equals 1000 ends, 
100 yds. (See table.) 

To use this method, multiply the picks by 
the width, by the length, by the waste, by the den- 


103 


ier, by the basis, and divide by 1,000,000, or point 
off six units. 

Example: Goods 40" wide, 80 picks per 
inch, length 100 yds., material 1 end 4 thread 13/ 
15 denier silk, waste 13 per cent. What is the 
weight ? 

Solution: 


4X4=56 

Width X picks X length X denier X waste X basis 
40 " _ 80 100 yds, 5 6_ 1.13 .224 = 4.24 lbs. 

1,000,000 

Or 40"X80 picks=3200X100 yds. (length)= 
320,000 yds.-s-1,000,000=.32X56 (4th.X14 den- 
ier)=17.92Xl-13 (13 per cent, waste) =20.2496 
X-224 (weight for 1 denier 1,000,000 yds.)= 
4.54 lbs. 

The same method also can be used for cal¬ 
culating weight of warp. 

Example: Warp 8040 ends, 105 yds. long, 
material: 2 thread 13/15 denier organ, loss in 
throwing 8 per cent., mill waste 5 per cent. What 
is the weight? 

Solution: 

x 


Ends X length X 
8040 105 


waste 

1.13 


denier 

28 


X basis 

.224 = 5.98 lbs. 


1,000,000 

Or: 8040 endsX105 yds.=844,200 yds.X1.13 
(13 per cent, waste) =953,946 yds.-£-l,000,000= 
.954 X 28 (2thd. X 14 denier)= 26.712 X -224 
(basis) =5.98 lbs. 

Artificial Silk : Artificial silk can be cal¬ 
culated by the same method. To compile a table 
of weights for the different sizes, multiply the 
size in denier by .224. This will give the weight 
per 1,000,000 yards. If a table was required for 
1000 ends 100 yards multiply the size in denier 
by .0224. Table for 1,000,000 yards and 1000 
ends 100 yards, or 100,000 yards as follows: 


104 




For 1,000,000 For 100,000 


Denier 




Yds. 

Yds. 

30 

X 

.224 

= 

6.72 

.672 

40 

X 

.224 

— 

8.96 

.896 

50 

X 

.224 

= 

11.20 

1.12 

60 

X 

.224 

= 

13.44 

1.344 

70 

X 

.224 

— 

15.68 

1.568 

80 

X 

.224 

— 

17.92 

1.792 

90 

X 

.224 


20.16 

2.016 

100 

X 

.224 

— 

22.40 

2.24 

150 

X 

.224 

= 

33.60 

3.36 

200 

X 

.224 


44.80 

4.48 

300 

X 

.224 


67.20 

6.72 

400 

X 

.224 

= 

89.60 

8.96 

500 

X 

.224 

= 

112.00 

11.20 

600 

X 

.224 

== 

134.40 

13.44 

700 

X 

.224 


156.80 

15.68 

800 

X 

.224 

= 

179.20 

17.92 

900 

X 

.224 

= 

201.60 

20.16 

1,000 

X 

.224 


224.00 

22.40 


To employ the above table point off 6 units 
for 1,000,000 yards and 5 units for 100,000 yards 
of the yards required for warp or filling and mul¬ 
tiply by the weight opposite the size of thread. 

Example: Take diagram 3. Warp 160 ends 
per inch, goods 40" wide, selvage 80 ends, length 
107 yards, material 150 denier artificial, mill 
waste 5 per cent. What is the weight? 

Solution: 160 endsX40"=6400 ends plus 
80 ends—6480 endsX107 yds =693,360 yds., 
plus 5 per cent, mill waste=728,028 yds.-4-l,000,- 
000=728X33.6=24.46 lbs. 

Example: Filling calculation. Goods 40" 
wide, 80 picks per inch, length 100 yds., mill 
waste 7 per cent, material 500 denier artificial. 
What is the weight? 

Solution: 40"X80 picks=3200 yds.XlOO 
yds. (length) =320,000 yds.Xl-07 (7 per cent 
waste) =342,400 yds.-f-l ,000,000 = .3424 X 112. 
=38.35 lbs. 


105 



Plate d. Silk Throwing. Reeling and lacing the twisted 
or thrown silk skeins. Note the crossings in the skeins. It is 
through these crossings that the girls are lacing cotton threads 
which keep the skein straight for handling in the next process. 
These crossings facilitate winding the skeins for weaving or 
knitting. 


106 




Chapter X 
COSTS 


S ILK manufacture, because of the constant 
change in fashions of fabrics, will always be 
a divided manufacture. No one concern, no mat¬ 
ter how wealthy, can hope to control all the 
sources of supplies of the many and various ma¬ 
terials that contribute to the making of the many 
various fabrics. To own silk farms and reeling 
mills in China, artificial silk plants, cotton and 
cotton spinning mills, would be an uncertain un¬ 
dertaking for a silk fabric manufacturer, because 
fashion changes from silk to other fabrics and 
other materials. So the raw materials must then 
be purchased from sources which are beyond 
control. 

Unlike steel and iron, wool and cotton, the 
trend in silk manufacture is to divide the pro¬ 
cesses under different ownerships. Thus many 
firms concentrate on weaving alone, depending 
on other firms to handle the many other processes 
and operations. 

In a way, this division of manufacture simp¬ 
lifies the cost of the operations done by outside 
firms, though it enlarges the difficulty of fixing 
the waste materials. For instance, the throwster, 
the dyer and the finisher charge a certain price, 
but the waste they make is not always easy to de¬ 
termine. At one time harness and reed building, 
designing, cardcutting, printing, etc., were con¬ 
sidered a part of a silk manufacturing plant, but 


107 


to-day are mostly separate units. These other 
units have fixed prices for their work, which 
should be charged on the cost sheet. And if any 
one firm handles any of these operations them¬ 
selves, the market price should be charged and 
any difference in cost charged to the department 
handling that operation. 

Prices: The prices to be charged for ma¬ 
terial will be determined by the amount paid or 
to be paid for that material. The price for hand¬ 
ling or treatment of material will be determined 
by the amount of money paid or to be paid for 
the operations. For instance, silk may be priced 
at so much per pound, but additional charges, 
such as interest on terms of the bill, testing 
charges, drayage and storage, etc., will increase 
the price per pound. Again, in the process of 
manufacture an operator may get so much money 
per week, but the operator may produce more one 
week than another. The amount of money paid 
per week or per payroll should be divided by the 
amount of work per week or payroll for a given 
period, to get the average price per pound. 

Prices change with conditions. If the sup¬ 
ply is greater than the demand, prices turn down¬ 
ward. If the supply is less than the demand, 
prices turn upward. This applies to labor as well 
as materials. It is important that sound judg¬ 
ment be used in fixing prices. 

The elements of uncertainty are numerous in 
silk manufacture. During the time that it takes 
to make the goods many things may happen, such 
as strikes, delay of material from seller, throw¬ 
ster, dyer, etc., all of which pile up the interest 


108 


on borrowed money. Then there is the humane 
element, which consists of the scarcity, and cost 
of labor; the material element, which takes ac¬ 
count of the supply, variation in size, and quality 
of materials; and the element of value, which 
changes the price of raw material and the price 
of the finished goods. 

For many reasons it is essential to adopt a 
system of accounting in the mill that will show 
the actual cost of every operation and the price 
of material for every order turned out of the 
mill. 


Cost Sheets : In making a cost calculation, 
use a printed form on which every item of cost 
is set down. No two firms use the same form, 
but the items essential to their particular business 
are always, or should be, printed. This will 
avoid many costly mistakes. In drawing up a 
cost form, always check the items with some 
other or standard form. The form we will use 
has become somewhat standardized and covers 
most of the variations of silk manufacture. The 
manufacture of silk fabrics, however, is becom¬ 
ing more diversified every day, and forms 
change. Cost forms, to be successful, should be 
as small and compact as possible, yet contain all 
the items of cost that are consumed in making 
the fabric. 

Goods should always be costed before and 
after making. It is more efficient to make two 
cost sheets for the same goods; an estimated cost 
sheet and an actual cost sheet.; the estimated cost 
sheet before and the actual cost sheet after mak¬ 
ing. Rarely will these two costs for the same 


109 


goods correspond in all particulars. A cost sheet 
is made for one class of goods and changed only 
when prices or construction of fabric, or material 
is changed. Of the two cost sheets, however, the 
estimated cost is the most important. 

Silk is too expensive a commodity to make 
and market afterwards, unless the goods are 
staple and a market is assured. The usual meth¬ 
od of marketing silk fabrics is to make up 
samples and estimate the cost per yard. Often¬ 
times the cost is estimated from some other firms 
goods. The main points, however, are the cor¬ 
rect construction and materials of the goods in 
question and the correct prices at which to sell 
the goods after they are made. To dissect the 
goods correctly, calculate the cost, sell the goods 
on that cost, and manufacture the fabric only on 
order is the only safe method. 

The first step in making an estimated cost is 
to calculate the requirements of all the materials 
that go to make the fabric. In the warp deter¬ 
mine the material and size, the reed, the number 
of ends per dent, the width and length of the 
goods to be made, and the weight. In the filling, 
the material and size, the picks per inch, the 
width and length, the total yards and weight. All 
these items are calculated one or more times on 
the cost sheet, which means every time the ma¬ 
terial is handled or treated a cost item must be 
charged. 

The processes of winding, quilling, warping, 
twisting, weaving, picking and cleaning are usu¬ 
ally accomplished by one firm, and we will de¬ 
termine how to arrive at prices for these opera¬ 
tions. The charge for general expense will be 


110 


calculated upon 100 loom plant basis. It is of 
importance to note that all charges as well as 
all calculations are made with theoretical figures 
and fabrics. The figures usually will be in round 
numbers to simplify calculating. This does not 
mean that the method of costing is theoretical. 
It means that your own figures and fabrics must 
be substituted for these to get your own costs. 
We show only how it can be done. 


Ill 


Chapter XI 

MILL PROCESS CALCULATING 

T HERE are two methods in vogue of paying 
for winding material; timework and piece¬ 
work. The timework method is to pay the opera¬ 
tor so much per week. The piecework method is 
to pay so much per pound. To arrive at the cost 
per pound of the timework method, keep tally of 
the number of pounds wound in a given time and 
divide the amount paid for that given time by the 
weight. For example: an-operator winds 100 
pounds per week and is paid $20 per week. $20 
-f-100 lbs.=20 cents per lb. Piecework is the 
price per pound calculated on the output for a 
given time; or the price is fixed by competition. 
Sometimes a bonus is granted for producing a 
larger output, which must be allowed for in cal¬ 
culating the cost of winding. 

The price for warping is calculated on the 
basis of 100 ends per 100 yards. This merely 
means pointing off 4 units, 2 for the ends and 2 
for the yards. The method of paying for warp¬ 
ing is timework and piecework. In timework the 
number of ends and yards are totaled for a given 
period and divided into the amount paid. For 
example: a warper turned out 40,000 ends 100 
yards long or a total of 4,000,000 yards per week 
and was paid $40. $40^-400.^10 cents per 100 
ends 100 yards. For piecework a price is paid 
for 100 ends 100 yards. Reversing the above 
example: an operator produced 4,000,000 yards 
112 


in a week and was paid at the rate of 10 per cent, 
per 100 ends 100 yards the amount would be $40. 
The piecework rate is often fixed by competition, 
or by the output for a given time. 

Quilling : Material for filling is wound on 
quills or “cops,” which are inserted in the shuttle 
of the loom. It is not practical to weigh filling 
out to the quilling machines. Filling is required 
only from day to day, as the yards are woven 
on the loom. Weeks will elapse before all the 
material for 100 yards of cloth will be required. 
For example: a loom producing 10 yards a day 
will require only enough filling for 10 yards of 
cloth that day, which will only be a tenth part 
of the lot assigned for that order. 

The method of paying for this operation is 
generally timework. The operator is paid so 
much per week. Keeping tally of the number of 
pounds quilled per week and dividing this into 
the amount paid will give the cost of quilling. 

Weaving: Operating the loom is called 
“weaving.” To produce yards of commercially 
perfect cloth is the purpose of the weaver. The 
payment is made at so much per yard. The cost 
is calculated at so much per yard. Most fabrics 
are woven under heavy tension, which stretches 
the cloth on the loom. After leaving the loom, 
the cloth when measured loosely will creep up a 
yard or so. For instance 100 yards woven on 
the loom will measure, perhaps, 99 yards. The 
payments made for weaving, picking and clean¬ 
ing, operations done after the goods leave the 
loom, should be calculated a yard or so less than 
woven. In the finishing, however, when tension 


113 


is again put on, the cloth will measure the full 
length. This is sometimes called the “regain in 
finish.” 

There are several ways of fixing the prices 
for weaving. The price varies in different com¬ 
munities. In some towns weaving prices are 
fixed by competition with the mills. In some 
mills the price is calculated by the output for a 
given time. A sound method for calculating 
weaving prices is based on the production of the 
loom, and the fair rate of pay a weaver should 
earn. The rate of pay a weaver should earn is 
fixed in different communities by the rate of pay 
in other trades. For instance, an iron worker, 
a cotton worker, and a knitting machine operator 
average, say, $30 per week. It is safe to assume 
that a weaver must be able to earn as much as 
other workers, or weavers will work at other 
trades. The production of the loom is calculated 
by the speed of the loom and the picks per inch 
in the goods, modified by the class of material 
and construction of the weave. The speed is cal¬ 
culated one revolution of the loom to one pick 
in the goods. 

Example: Speed of loom 140 revolutions 
per minute, running 8 hours a day, with goods 
80 picks per inch, how many maximum yards 
will loom produce? 

Solution: 140 r.p.m.X60 minutes per hour 
—8400 picks per hourXB hours per day=67,200 
picks per day. Cloth 80 picks per inchX36 
inches per yard=2880 picks per yard. 76,200 
picks (speed)-=-2880 picks per yard=231/3 
yards per day. 


114 



Plate e. —Warping. Horizontal warping machine with 
an 8-yard reel, upon which the warp is made for the looms. 
The warp in process of making is seen on the right, partly 
covering the reel. 


115 






This is the maximum production of a loom 
running continuously every second in the day. 
But looms must be stopped for many reasons. 
Waiting for warps, twisting-in, piecing broken 
ends, changing filling, picking back, etc., are a 
few of the reasons for stopping the loom. On 
plain goods there is less stoppage than on fancy 
weaves. Also stoppage is determined by the 
quality of the material, condition of the mechani¬ 
cal parts of the loom, and how long a loom waits 
for a repeat of order. 

The stoppage is calculated at from 50 to 10 
per cent, according to the conditions under which 
the goods are made. The average, perhaps, is 30 
per cent., which leaves 70 per cent, running time. 
Calculating 23 1/3 yards per maximum produc¬ 
tion with 30 per cent, stoppage would be 23 1/3 
yds.X/0 per cent.=16 1/3 yds. per day actual 
production. 

Assuming a weaver should earn $3 per day 
per loom, divide $3-^16.33 yds.—18^ cents per 
yd. 

Note: A short method for calculating the 
maximum yards per day from the speed of the 
loom and picks per inch is to divide the speed 
of the loom by 1/10th of the picks per inch and 
add l/3rd to the quotient. 

Solution: Speed 140 r.p.m.-^8.0 picks= 
17.50 plus 1/3=23 1/3 yds. 

Twisting: Twisting-in is piecing the ends 
of a new warp on to the ends of a woven warp. 
This is done by twisting the two ends together 
with the fingers or by the twisting-in machine. 
This operation is calculated at so much per 100 


116 


ends. Piecework and timework is paid. Divide 
the number of ends twisted into the amount paid 
for the operation to get the cost. Double ends 
are paid usually as single ends. 

General Expense: There are many meth¬ 
ods for calculating general expense. This takes 
account of all the expense that does not other¬ 
wise appear on cost sheet, such as salaries, rent, 
light, power, depreciation of machinery, supplies, 
shipping, interest on loans, and many items of 
cost that are too numerous and of too private a 
nature to show on an ordinary cost sheet. These 
items are kept usually in ledger form and totaled 
for a given period, concurrent with the stock¬ 
taking. 

Some firms total their general expense year¬ 
ly or semi-yearly or even monthly and divide the 
total by the value of the goods produced in that 
time. This gives the cost per cent, for every 
dollar produced. For example; the general ex¬ 
pense was 15 per cent, of cost of the goods pro¬ 
duced in the past six months. This would be 
added to the cost on every cost sheet. 

Some firms divide their expense by the num¬ 
ber of square feet taken up by the machinery in 
the plant, thereby getting the cost per square foot 
for each machine. This method is more preva¬ 
lent in machinery than in textile plants. 

In silk manufacturing the general expense 
is more often calculated by finding the cost per 
yard per loom of the total yearly or half yearly 
expense. Assuming' the total general expense 
for one year for a 100-loom plant was $100,000, 
the cost per loom would be $100,000-^-100 looms 


117 


—$1000 per loom per year. There are 280 ordi¬ 
nary working days in a year, calculated as fol¬ 
lows : 365 days less 52 Sundays, 26 Saturdays 
and 7 holidays, leaving 280 working days. $1000 
per loom per year-f-280 working days=$3.572 
per day. If the loom produces 16.33 yards per 
day divide 3.572-^16.33=21.9 cents per yard for 
general expense. 

Picking and Cleaning : This is done after 
the goods are woven, and should be calculated 
less than the yards woven, because the goods will 
be measured loose. Some goods, such as satins, 
require more picking than others. Goods woven 
in the raw are not cleaned, because they are 
boiled off when dyed. If the operator is paid 
timework, that is so much per week, divide the 
amount paid by the number of yards picked and 
cleaned. 

Finishing: Finishing is mainly done by 
other firms on commission basis, and the market 
price should be charged. 

Cards and Designs: This is for jacquard 
or figured goods, and is more often done by spe¬ 
cialists as a separate business. The cost is calcu¬ 
lated on the basis of one yard or 100 yards. 
Divide the cost by the number of yards to get the 
cost per yard or 100 yards. 

Piece Dyeing: The market price to be 
charged. , 

Print Warps: The market price to be 
charged. Weaving, rebeaming and retwisting 
for print warps are calculated the same as other 
similar mill processes. 

Dyeing: The market price to be charged. 


118 








COST CALCULATION No, 1 

Taffeta 


ARTICLE TAFFETA 


PATTERN DIAGRAM 1. 


Reed 80 Ends Per Dent£■£• 2/l 160/l Width 40" Length 100 yds. 

Lligc 4/2 40/3 


Warp 6400 Ends. Material 2th. Organ Sizel3/l5 DcnWeight 5.059 Lbs. @ 

11 

00 

55 65 

tl .. . .. 




.. 



i 

Selvage 80 “ “ “ 




Total 0480 




L 

Yards wami 712.800 _ Filling 320-000 * 





Filling 80 Picks 1-end 4th. Tram . *• 13/15 Den.“ 4.54 

1° H 

50^ 

47 t 67 





1 Warping & Beaming Basis 10 c per 100 ends 100 yards T12,800 Ends 


10 

7 13 

2 


— 


3 “ “ “ “ “ 


Twisting 6400/l & 40/2 lO^Per io§ ends 6440 ends “ 


10 

6 44 

Weaving 99 Yards 


18 

5 18 31 

Picking D9 “ 


02 

1 98 

Fnishing 100 “ 


03 

3 

00 

Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 





General Expenses “ 100 “ 100 


2lj 

9_21_ 


Dyeing and Finishing (Piece Dye) *• 





Printing (Print Warps) “ 





Printing Surface 






Average Weight of_ 

Dyeing, War p W eight to 


100 


Yds. 


11.44 Lbs. 


JL6/l8 OZ . _o z. Filling Weight to 

13 _per cent is included in above figures for warp. 
13 —“ “ “ “ “ “_filling 


Net Cost 
LZ_ 


162 08 


CO ST OF MATERIALS 


WARP _ _ FILLING _CONCLUSIONS 


Raw 

8 c00 




o 

o 

• 


Selling Price 1 

87 

Throwing 

.1.25 




1 .no 


Com. & Discountl5# 

31 

! 78 

Dyeing 

1.50 

« 25 

j 



2.00 


---j 

Net Returns 

180 

os 

Winding 




.25 


Net Cost 

162 

08 

Doubling 







Net Profit 10# 

18 

01 

Quilling 





.25 


Weekly Product of Lo<5f$- S *89 

82 

Total 

o 

c, 

9 

tH 

iH 




10.50 

Loom Earns per Week <*} 


17 
















































































































































































Chapter XII 

COMPLETE COST CALCULATION NO. 1 

T HE first complete cost calculation will be made 
of the fabric depicted in Diagram 1. The 
items will be calculated and the results entered 
on the printed cost sheet on the opposite page. 
Article: Taffeta. Pattern: Diagram 1. 
Construction of Warp: Reed 80 dents 
per inch, ground warp 2 single ends per dent, 160 
ends per inch. Selvage 4/2 (4 double) ends per 
dent, 10 dents (5 on each side)X4/2 ends=40/2 
ends. Goods 40" wide, 100 yards long. Take-up 
in weaving 10 per cent. 

Warp Material: 2 thread organ, 13/15 
denier, loss in throwing 8 per cent., mill waste 
5 per cent. 

Cost of Warp Material : Raw $8 per lb. 
Throwing $1.25 per lb. Dyeing $1.50 per lb. 
Winding $.25 per lb. Total $11.00 per lb. 

Warp Calculation: 160 ends per inchX 
40" wide=6400 ends, plus 80 ends selvage=6480 
endsXl-10 yds. (100 yds. with 10 per cent, take- 
up)=7128 yds.H-1000 (or point 3 units)=7.128 
X-628 (weight for 1000 ends 100 yds.)=4.477X 
1.13 (13 per cent, added for waste)—5.959 lbs. 
X$ll per lb.=$55.65. 

Total Ends : 6480. 

Total Yards: Warp 6480X110=712,800. 
Filling 80X40X100=320,000. 

Filling Construction : 80 picks per inch, 
40 inches wide, 100 yards long. 


119 


Filling Material: 1 end of 4 thread 
tram, 13/15 denier silk. Loss in throwing 6 per 
cent., mill waste 7 per cent. 

Cost of Filling Material: Raw $7 per 
lb. Throwing $1 per lb. Dyeing $2 per lb. 
Winding $.25 per lb. Quilling $.25 per lb. Total 
$10.50 per lb. 

Filling Calculation: 80 picks per inch 
X40" wide=3200 yds.XlOO yds. length=320,- 
000 yds.-^-l,000,000 (or point 6 units) =.32X56 
denier (4 thrd. X 14 denier) = 17.92 X -224 
(weight for 1,000,000 yds.) =4.02 lbs.Xl-13 (13 
per cent. waste)=4.54 lbs.X$10'50 per lb.= 
$47.67. 

Warping and Beaming : Basis 10c per 100 
ends 100 yds. Total yds. 712,800-^10,000 (or 
point 4 units) =71.28X10°—$2.13. 

Twisting: Basis 10c per 100 ends. 6400 
ends plus 40/2 (double ends are paid the same 
as single)=6440 endsXIOc per 100=$6.44. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.-^-8.0 
picks=17.50 plus 1/3=23 1/3 yds. less 30 per 
cent. stoppage=16.33 yds. per day. Rate of pay 
$3 per day per loom-^-16.33 yds =18Xc per yd. 
Length: 100 yds. woven taffeta will creep to 99 
yds. 99 yds.X18X c P er yd.=$18.31. 

Picking and Cleaning : 99 yds. @ 2c per 
yd=$1.98. 

Finishing : 100 yds. @ 3c per yd=$3. 

Cards and Design : No charge. 

General Expense: $3,572 per day-f-16.33 
yds. per day=21.9c per ydXlOO yds.=$21.90. 

Piece Dye and Print Warps : No charge. 

Total Net Cost: $162.08. Total of right 
hand column on cost sheet. 


120 


Average weight of 100 yards of cloth is cal¬ 
culated as follows: Warp 5.06 lbs. less 8 per 
cent. (5 per cent, mill waste and 3 per cent, 
throwsters waste). (Shrinkage and take-up af¬ 
fects the length, not the weight)=4.66 lbs.X^ye 
weight (16/18=18 oz.-r-16 oz.=1.125)=5.24 
lbs. Filling: 4.54 lbs. less 9 per cent (7 per cent, 
mill waste, 2 per cent throwsters waste)=4.13 
lbs.Xdye weight 1.5 (22/24=24 oz.-^-16 oz.= 
1.5)=6.20 lbs. Warp 5.24 lbs. plus filling 6.20 
lbs.=11.44 lbs. 

Dyeing : Warp weighted to 16/18 ozs. per 
lb. This means the silk in the warp will have 
been boiled off about four ozs. in every lb. and 
weighted up to eighteen ozs. per lb. Filling 
weighted to 22/24 ozs. to the lb. 13 per cent, is 
included in above figures for warp and filling. 

Conclusions: Conclusions are calculated 
from the total net cost. Profit, commission and 
discount are deducted from the selling price. As¬ 
suming the profit to be 10 per cent, and the com¬ 
mission and discount 15 per cent., these per¬ 
centages will be deducted when the goods are 
sold. The net cost represents then 90 per cent, 
and 85 per cent, of the selling price, 15 per cent, 
going to the factors for selling the goods and 10 
per cent, to the mill for making the goods. Net 
return is the amount less the seller’s commission 
and discount. 

In this case the net cost is $162.03 which is 
90 per cent, of the net return, because net return 
represents net cost 90 per cent, and net profit 10 
per cent. Net cost $162.08-^-90=1.8009 or 1 per 
cent.X100 per cent.=$180.09. This again repre¬ 
sents 85 per cent, for commission and discount, 


121 


is 15 per cent. $180.09-4-85=2.1187 or 1 per 
cent.XlOO per cent.=$211.87 which is the selling 
price. 

Weekly product of loom is the number of 
yds. produced per day multiplied by the number 
of days per week. 16.33 yds.X^X days=89.82 
yds. per week. 

Loom earns per week the profit per yard 
multiplied by the yards produced per week. 
Profit is 10 per cent, of net return, which is for 
100 yards of goods. The profit on one yard 
would be 1/100 of the profit on 100 yards. This 
multiplied by the weekly product of the loom 
will give the amount the loom earns per week. 
The figures for conclusions are as follows: 


Selling price=net cost 162.08-4-90= 

180.09 (net return)-=-85. $211.87 

Commission and discount=15 per 

cent, of 211.87 (selling price) . .. 31.78 

Net return=162.08 (net cost-4-90.. . 180.09 

Net cost is the total of right hand 

column . 162.08 

Net profit is 10 per cent, of 180.09 

(net return) . 18.01 

Weekly product of loom is 16.33 yds. 

per dayX^X days.. 89.82 Yds. 

Loom earns per week is 89.82 yds.X 
.1801 (net profit divided by 100 
or pointed off 2 units). $16.17 


Note: Commission and discount added to 
net return should equal the selling price. Net 
cost added to net profit should equal the net re¬ 
turn. The weekly product of loom multiplied by 
the net profit, pointed off two units, will give the 
amount the loom earns per week. 


122 























COST CALCULATION No. 2 

Twill 

ARTI C LE Tw ill__ PATTERN Diagram 2. 


Reed 60 Ends Per Dentgjj; ^ 2 ^//\ Width 40 " Length 100 yards. 


Warp 9600 Ends. Material 2 thrd. Organ Sizel3/l5 DenWeight 7.35 Lbs. @ 

11 

00 

80 85 

.« 










Selvage 80 “ “ “ “ 





Total 9680 





Yards Warp 1,035,760 •• Filling 24,000“ 





Filling . 60 Picks “ Spun Silk • 40/2 “ 7.64 

6 

50 

49 

66 

.< <,< << «< << 





1 Warping & Beaming Basis 10 c per 100 ends 100 yards 1,035,760(107 X 9680) Ends 


10 

10 

36 

2 





3 “ 





Twisting lO^Per 100 ends 9640 “ 


10 

9 i 

64 

Weaving 99 Yards 


16 

15 

84 

Picking 99 

, 

02 

1 

as 

Fnishing 100 “ 


03 

3 

00 

Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 





General Expenses “ 100 «« 100 “ 


lO^ 

4 19 

14 

Dyeing and Finishing (Piece Dye) “ 





Ijfriot” 1 !? Printing (Print Warps) “ 





Printing Surface Prints 





Average Weight of 100 Yds. 2U.94 Lbs. Net Cost 



190 - 

47 


Dy eing, Warp Weig ht to 16/18 02 . Filling Weight to _ _ 28/30 _ oz. 

13 _per cent is included in above figures for warp. 

- ' 7 -^ ““* *“** ““ ** filling 


COST OF MATERIALS 


WARP FILLING CONCLUSIONS 

I ~ I r -;— 


Raw 

$8.00 


1- 


o 

© 

CO 

m- 


Selling Price $248 

98 

Throwing 

1.25 



I 


Com. & Discount 1 5^ 

37 

— 

35 

Dyeing 

1.50 




3.00 


----- --—- 

Net Returns 

211 

| 63 

Winding 

.25 




.25 


Net Cost 

19 0 

47 

Doubling 








Net Profit 10 % 

21 

16 

Quilling 





.2* 



Weekly Product of LooSrtf^ 

ino 

r,<i 

Total 

11.00 




6.50 



Loom Earns per Week ' 

21 

uJJLO- 

! 72 


. 





l 



























































































































Chapter XIII 

COST CALCULATION NO. 2 


rpHE second complete cost calculation is made 

from the fabric depicted in Diagram 2. The 
items are calculated and the results entered on 
the opposite page. 

Article: Twill. Pattern: Diagram 2. 

Construction of Warp: Reed 60 dents 
per inch, ground warp 4 single ends per dent, 240 
ends per inch. Selvage 4 double ends per dent, 
10 dents, making 40/2 ends. Goods 40" wide, 
100 yards long. Take-up in weaving 7 per cent. 

Warp Material: 2 thread organ, 13/15 
denier. Loss in throwing 8 per cent., mill waste 
5 per cent. 

Cost of Material: Raw $8, throwing 
$1.25, dyeing 16/18 oz. $1.50, winding $.25 per 
lb. Total $11 per lb. 

Warp Calculations : 240 ends per inchX 
40"=9600 ends, plus 80 ends for selvage=9680 
ends -f- 1000 = 9.68 X 1-07 yds. = 10.358X-628 
(weight for 1000 ends 100 yds. 2thrd organ)— 
6.50 Ibs-X1T3 (13 per cent. waste)=7.35 Ibs.X 
$11 per lb.=$80.85. 

Total Ends : Warp 9600, selvage 80, total 
9680. 

Total Yards: Warp 9680X107=1,035,- 
760. Filling 60X40X100=24,000. 

Filling Construction : 60 picks per inch, 
40 inches wide, 100 yards long. 


123 


Filling Material: 1 end 40/2 spun silk. 
Mill waste 7 per cent. 

Cost of Filling Material : Raw $3, dye¬ 
ing 28/30 oz. $3, winding $.25, quilling $.25 per 
lb. Total $6.50 per lb. 

Filling Calculation : 60 picksX40"= 

2400 yds.Xl-00 yds. (length)=2400 yds-r-1000 
(or point 3 units)=2.4X2.977 (weight for 1000 
ends 100 yds. 40/2 spun silk) =7.14 lbs.Xl-07 (7 
per cent, mill waste)—7.64 lbs. @ $6.50 per lb.= 
$49.66. 

Warp and Beaming: Basis 10c per 100 
ends 100 yds. Total yds. 1,035,760-4-10,000 (or 
point 4 units)=103.567X10c=$10.36. 

Twisting: Basis 10c per 100 ends 9600 
ends plus 40/2 (double ends are paid the same 
as single) =9640 ends @ 10c per 100=$9.64. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.-f-6.0 
picks=23.33 plus 1/3=31.1 yds. per day, less 
stoppage 40 per cent.=18.66 yds. per day. Rate 
of pay for one loom $3-^18.66 yds.=16c per yd. 
Length of goods when measured loose 99 vds.X 
16c=$ 15.84. 

Picking and Cleaning : 99 yds. @ 2c per 
yd .=$1.98. 

Finishing: 100 yds. @ 3c per yd.=$3. 

Cards and Designs: No charge. 

General Expense: $3,572 per day~18.66 
yds.=$.1914 per yd.XlOO yds.=$19.14. 

Piece Dye and Print Warps: No charge. 

Total Net Cost: $190.47. 

Average weight of 100 yards of cloth calcu¬ 
lated as follows: Warp 7.35 lbs. less 8 per cent, 
waste (3 per cent, throwing and 5 per cent, mill 


124 


waste). (Shrinkage affects the length, not the 
weight.) =6.76 lbs.X1.125 (16/18 oz.=18 ozs.-f- 
16 ozs.=1.125)=7.61 lbs. Filling 7.64 lbs. less 
7 per cent, (mill waste)=7.11 lbs.Xl-875 (28/ 
30=30 ozs.-j-16 ozs.=1.875)=13.33 lbs. Warp 
7.35 lbs. plus filling 13.33 lbs=20.94 lbs. 

Dyeing, warp weighted to 16/18 oz. Filling 
weighted to -28/30 oz. 13 per cent, included in 
above figures for warp. 7 per cent, included in 
above figures for filling. 

Conclusions : 

Selling price equals net cost $190.47 
=90=4211.63 (net return)-^ 


85 . $248.98 

Commission and discount equals 15 
per cent, of $248.98 (selling 

price) . 37.35 

Net return equals net cost $190.47-= 

90. 211.63 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column . 190.47 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of net 

return . 21.16 

Weekly product of loom equals 
18.66 yds. per dayX$X days 

per week. 102.63 Yds. 

Loom earns per week 102.63 yds.X 
.2116 (net profit divided by 100 
yds., or pointed off 2 units. ... $21.72 


Note: Commission and discount added to 
net return should equal the selling price. Net 
cost added to net profit should equal the net re¬ 
turn. The weekly product of loom multiplied by 
the net profit pointed off two units will give the 
amount the loom earns per week. 


125 









Chapter XIV 

COST CALCULATION NO. 3 
rjlHE third complete cost calculation is made 
-** from the fabric depicted in Diagram 3. The 
materials for warp are silk, spun silk, and artifi¬ 
cial silk. These yarns form stripes of one inch, 
running in rotation across the fabric. Each yarn 
should be made into separate warps because of 
the different take-up, due to the difference in the 
sizes of the yarns. The filling is 48s wool. The 
fabric could be called a “mixed yarn fabric.” 
The items are calculated and the results entered 
on the opposite page. (See form No. 3.) 

Article: Twill, mixed yarns fabric. Pat¬ 
tern : Diagram 3. 

Construction of Warps: Reed 48 dents 
per inch. Ground warps; artificial silk 4/1 ends 
per dent, 192 ends per inch; spun silk 3/1 ends 
per dent, 144 ends per inch; silk 6/2 ends per 
inch, 288/2 ends per inch. Selvage; on one edge 
of cloth 3 dents, 4/2 ends per dent, 12/2 ends of 
artificial silk, on other edge of cloth 3 dents, 6/4 
ends per dent, 18/4 ends of silk. Goods 48 
inches wide, 100 yards long. Take-up for arti¬ 
ficial silk 10 per cent., for spun silk 15 per cent., 
for silk 5 per cent. 

Warp Material: 1 end of 150 denier arti¬ 
ficial silk, 1 end of 60/2 spun silk, and 2 ends of 
2 thread 13/15 denier silk. Loss in throwing, on 
silk only, 8 per cent. Mill waste for each yarn 5 
per cent. 


126 


COST CALCULATION No. 3 

Mixed Fabrics 

PATTERN Diagram ^ 


ARTICLE Twill. Mixed Yarn Fabric 

= - A rlvZprimy.i 

Reed 48 per in. Ends Per Dent EdglaSYSO/Width 48” 


Length 100 yds. 


War'p 3082 Ends. Material Artif iClal^^'^e 150 Den ^ e ‘£ht 12.02 Lbs. @ 

$6 

25 

75 

13 

“ 2304 .. *« Spun Silk “ 60/2 “ 5.52 

4 

25 

23 

16 

“ 9216 “ “ 2th. Organ “ 13/l5 Den.“ 6.92 

11 

00 

76 

13 

Selvage 72 “ “ “ “ “ 





Total 14688 





Yards Warp: Artificial* 357,588, Spun silk 278,208,“ Silk 1.102.021 





Filling 50 Picks “ Wool “ 48s “ 240.000yds “ 





“ “ “ 17.84 " 

3 

00 

53 


1 Warping & Beaming Basis 10c per 100 ends 100 yards Artificial 35.7688 Ends 


10 

8 


2 “ “ . Spun Silk 27.8208 


10 

2 ^8 

3 “ “ . Silk 102.4002 


10 

10 24 

Twisting 10^ Per 100 ends 10,014 “ 


in 

10 01 

Weaving 99 Yards 


131 

13 36 

Picking 99 *• 


02 

CD 

-O- 

H 

Fnishing 100 “ 


03 

3 6 0 

Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 





General Expenses “ 100 *« 100 “ 


15 9 

* 15 < 

15_ 

Dyeing and Finishing (Piece Dye) “ 

. 




(Print Warps) “ 





Printing “ 



— 



Average Weight of 


100 


Yds. 


40.42 Lbs. 


Net Cost 


289 14 


Dyeing ^ 1 t to Net ‘Silk ir»/l8 o z. Filling Weight to Net 


Art. 5^o • Spun 5 % Sil k 13 per cent is included in above figures for warp. 

7 “ “ “ “ “ “ “ “ filling 


COS T OF MA T ERIALS 


CONCLUSIONS 


Raw 

$5.00 

$3.00 

$8.00 


$2.00 


Selling Price 

£377|,Q6 

Throwing 



1.25 




Com. & Discount 15^& 

56j 69 

Dyeing 

1.00 

.25 

o 

o 

• 

rH 

1.50 


.60 


Net Returns 

321 27 

Winding 

• 25 

.25 


.45 


Net Cost 

289 

14 

Doubling 







Net Profit 10 % 

32j 13 

Quilling 





.25 


Weekly Product of Leom^ 

*123.2 

Total 

$6.25 

$4.25 

$11.00 


$3.00 


Loom Earns per Week j 39 

58 






1 































































































































































































Cost of Materials per Pound: Artificial 
silk; raw $5, dyeing $1, winding $.25. Total 
$6.25 per pound. Spun silk; raw $3, dyeing $1, 
winding $.25. Total $4.25 per pound. Silk; raw 
$8, throwing $1.25, dyeing $1.50, winding $.25. 
Total $11 per pound. 

Warp Calculations: Three 1" stripe of 
each yarn measure 3". Goods 48" wide-^-3"= 
16" for each yarn. 48 dents per inchX16 of 
each yarn=768 dents in reed of each yarn. Cal¬ 
culated as follows: 



Ends per dent 

Dents 

Ends in warp 

Artificial 

silk 4/1 X 

768 

= 3,072 

Spun silk 

3/1 X 

768 

= 2,304 

Silk 6/2 

= 12/1 X 

768 

= 9,216 


Artificial silk 3072 ends in warp add 12/= 
24/1 ends in selvage=3096 endsXHO yds. (10 
per cent, take-up) =340,560 yds.H-1,000,000 (or 
point 6 units)=.34056X150 denier=51.084X 
.224 (weight for 1,000,000 yds.)=11.44 lbs.X 
1.05 (5 per cent, mill waste)=12.02 lbs.X$6.25 
per lb =$75.13. 

Spun silk 2304 ends in warpXUS yds. (15 
per cent, take-up) =264,960 yds.-^-100,000 (or 
point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 yds.)=2.6496X 
1.984 (weight for 1000 ends 100 yds.)=5.26 lbs. 
X105 (5 per cent, mill waste)=5.52 lbs.X$4.25 
per lb.=$23.46. 

Silk 9216 ends in warp add 72 ends selvage 
(18/4)=9288 endsX105 yds. (5 per cent, take- 
up)=975,240 yds.-f-100,000 (or point 5 units for 
1000 ends 100 yds.)=9.7524 lbs.X-628 (weight 
for 13/15 denier silk 1000 ends 100 yds.)=6.12 
lbs.XI'13 (13 per cent=8 per cent, throwing and 


127 


5 per cent, mill waste)=6.92 lbs.X$H P er lb.— 
$76.13. 

Total Ends: 14,688 as follows: artificial 
3072, spun silk 2304, silk 9216, selvage artificial 
24, silk 72. 

Total Yards : Artificial 357,588, spun silk 
278,208, silk 1,102,021. 

Filling Construction : 50 picks per inch. 
Goods 48 inches wide, 100 yards long. 

Filling Material: 1 end of 48s wool. 
Mill waste 7 per cent. 

Cost of. Filling Material: Per pound, 
raw $2, dyeing $.60, winding $.15, quilling $.25. 
Total $3 per pound. 

.Filling Calculations: 50 picks per inch 
X48" wide=2400 yds.XlOO yds. (length)= 
240,000 yds.^-100,000 (or point 5 units for 1000 
ends 100 yds.) =2.4X6.944 (weight for 1000 
ends 100 yds. of 48s wool)—16.67 lbs.Xl-07 (7 
per cent, mill waste)=17.84 lbs.X$3 per lb.= 
$53.52. 

Warping and Beaming : Basis 10 per cent, 
per 100 ends 100 yds. Artificial; 3072 ends and 
12/2=3096 endsXHO yds.=340,560X1-05 (5 
per cent, mill waste) =357,588 yds. @ 10c per 
100 ends 100 yds.=$3.58. Spun silk; 2304 ends 
XI15 yds.=264,960 yds.Xl-05 (5 per cent, mill 
waste) =278,208 @ 10c per 100 ends 100 yds.= 
$2.78. Silk; 9216 ends and 18/4=9288X105 
yds. (length) =975,240 yds.Xl-05 (5 per cent, 
mill waste) =1,024,002 yds. @ 10c per 100 ends 
100 yds.=$10.24. 

Twisting: Basis 10c per 100 ends. Artifi- 


128 


cial 3072 ends, spun silk 2304 ends, and silk 4608, 
selvage 12 and 18 ends, totaling 10,014 ends @ 
10c per 100=$10.01. 

Note: In twisting; doubled, tripled, etc., 
ends are calculated as single ends. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.-j-5.0 
picks=28 yds. plus 1/3=37.33 yds. per day, less 
stoppage 40 per cent.=22.40 yds. per day. Rate 
of pay $3 per day per loom-^22.40 yds. per day 
=13*/2C per yd. Length of goods when meas¬ 
ured loose 99 yds. @ 13*/2 per yd.=$13.36. 

Picking and Cleaning: 99 yds. @ 2c per 
yd .=$1,98. 

Finishing: 100 yds. @ 3c per yd.=$3. 

Cards and Designs : No charge. 

Piece Dye and Print Warps: No charge. 

General Expense: Cost $3,572 per day-^- 
22.4 yds. per day=$.1595 per .yd.X100 yds.= 
$15.95. 

Total Net Cost : $289.14. 


Average weight of 100 yards of cloth 
equals: 


Lbs. 

Mill Waste 


Artificial silk 12.02 

less 5% 

= 11.42 

Spun silk 5.52 

less 5% 

= 5.24 

Silk 6.92 

less 8% 

= 

6.37 lbs.X1.125 (16/18=18 oz.-f- 

16oz.)= 7.18 

Wool 17.84 

less 7% 

= 16.59 



40.42 


Dyeing warp weighted to as follows: 
Artificial silk; net. 

Spun silk; net. 

Silk; 16/18 oz. 

Filling weighted to; net. 

5 per cent, artificial, 5 per cent, spun silk and 13 


129 


per cent, for silk included in above figures for 
waste. 7 per cent, included in above figures for 
filling. 

Conclusions : 

Selling price equals net cost $289.14 


-*-90=$321.27-s-85 . $377.96 

Commission and discount equals 15 
per cent, of $377.96 (selling 

price) . 56.69 

Net return equals net cost $289.14-=- 

90 . 321.27 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column . 289.14 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of net 

return . 32.13 

Weekly product of loom equals 22.4 

yds. per daydays . 123.2 Yds. 

Loom earns per week 123.2 yds.X 

.3212 (net profit-f-100). $39.58 


Note: Commission and discount added to 
net return should equal selling price. Net cost 
added to net profit should equal net return. The 
weekly product of loom multiplied by the net 
profit, pointed off two units for 100 yds., will 
give the amount the loom earns per week. 


130 

































' 























COST CALCULATION No. 4 

Cotton-back Satin 


ARTIC LE Satin^^otton Ba ck._ _ __PATTERN Diagram 4 T 

Reed 66 2/3 Ends Per Dent /§ er " Width 40 inches Length 100 yds. 


Warp 16,000 Ends. Material 2til • Organ Sizel3/l5 denWeight 11.98 Lbsi @ 


i- 

13JL 







<• 





Selvage 72 “ “ “ “ “ 





Total 16 ,072 





Yards Warp; 1,771,938 “ Filling 294,000 





Filling 70 picks “ Cotton “ 2/60s “ 11*89 “ 

r 

0 

00 

35 

67 

.. 





1 Warping & Beaming Basis 10c per 100 ends 100 yards 177.1938 Ends 


10 

17 

72 

2 .. .. .« o «. 





3 “ “ 





Twisting 10 Per 100 ends 16,036 


10 

16 

04 

Weaving 18.66 yds . per day 99 Yards 


16 

15 

84 

Picking 99 “ 


02 

1 

98 

Fnishing 100 “ 


03 

3 

oq 

Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 




—/—- 

General Expenses “100 " $3,572 per day 100 


19*1 

* 19 

14 

Dyeing and Finishing (Piece Dye) «• 




(Print Warps) «• 




■ 

Printing “ 






Average Weight of _ 1QQ Yds. 23,46 Lbs. _Net Coat_ $241 17 


Dye in g. Warp W eig ht to __oz._ Fillin g Weight to USti __ oz. 

13 _per cent is included in above figures for warp. 

. 7 ““** “ “ ** “ filling 

_COST OF MATERIALS 


warp.:. _ _ Filling __ conclusions 


Raw 

$8.00 


! 


$2.00 


Selling Price 


! 24 

Throwing 

1.25 


i 


1 

i 


Com. & Discount 15$> 

47 

28 

Dyeing 

1.50 




.60 


Net Returns 

267 

’ 96_ 

I 17 

Winding 

.25 




.15 


Net Cost 

241 

Doubling 







Net Profit 10< 

26 

1 79 

Quilling 





.25 


Weekly Product of * 

102 

.63 

Total 

fcll.00 



$3.00 ! 


Loom Earns per Week ' 

1 27 49 





i r 



















































































































Chapter XV 

COST CALCULATION NO. 4 
rpHE fourth complete cost calculation is made 

from the fabric depicted in Diagram 4. The 
material for the warp is silk. The material for 
filling is cotton. This could be called a “cotton 
back satin.” The items are calculated and the 
results entered on opposite page. (See form 
No. 4.) 

Article : Cotton back satin. Pattern: Dia¬ 
gram 4. 

Construction of Warp: Reed 66 2/3 
dents per inch. Ground warp 6 ends per dent, 
400 ends per inch. Selvage; 6 dents, 6/2 ends 
per dent, total 36/2 ends. Goods 40" wide, 100 
yards long. Take-up 5 per cent. 

Warp Material: 1 end of 2 thread organ, 
13/15 denier silk. Loss in throwing 8 per cent. 
Mill waste 5 per cent. 

Cost of Material for Warp : Per pound; 
raw $8, throwing $1.25, dyeing $1.50, winding 
$.25. Total $11 per pound. 

Warp Calculation: 400 ends per inchX 
40"=16,000 ends plus 36/2 or 72/1=16,072 ends 
X105 yds. (5 per cent. take-up)=l,687,560 yds. 
—i—100,000 (or point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 
yds.)=16.8756X.628 (weight for 2th. organ, 
13/15 denier, 1000 ends 100 yds.)=10.60 lbs.X 
1.13 (8 per cent, loss in throwing and 5 per cent, 
mill waste)=11.98 lbs.X$U per lb.=$131.78. 


131 


Total Ends: 16,000 in ground warp and 
72 ends in selvage total 16,072. 

Total Yards: Warp 16,072X105 yds. plus 
5 per cent, mill waste=l,771,938. Filling 2800 
yds.XlOO yds. plus 7 per cent, mill waste=294,- 
000 yds. 

Filling Construction : 70 picks per inch, 
goods 40" wide, 100 yards long. 

Filling Material : 1 end of 2/60s cotton. 
Mill waste 7 per cent. 

Cost of Filling Material: Per pound, 
raw $2, dyeing $.60, winding $.15, quilling $.25. 
Total $3 per pound. 

Filling Calculation : 70 picks per inchX 
40" wide—2800 yds.XlOO yds. (length) =280,- 
000 yds.-^10,000 (or point 5 units for 1000 ends 
100 yds.)=2.80 lbs.X3.968 (weight for 1000 
ends 100 yds. of 2/60s cotton)=11.11 lbs. plus 
7 per cent. waste=11.89 lbs.X$3 per lb.=$35.67. 

Warping and Beaming: Basis 10c per 100 
ends 100 yds. 177.1938 @ 10c=$17.72. 

Twisting: Basis 10c per 100 ends. 16,- 
000/1 and 36/2 ends=16,036 ends @ 10c per 100 
=$16.04. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.-wO 
picks=20 plus 1/3=26.66 yds. less stoppage 30 
per cent.=18.66 yds. per day. Rate of pay per 
loom $3-^-18.66=16c per yd. Length of goods 
when measured loose 99 yds. @ 16c per yd.= 
$15.84. 

Picking and Cleaning : 99 yds. @ 2c per 
yd.=$1.98. 

Finishing : 100 yds. @ 3c per yd.=$3. 


132 


Cards and Designs : No charge. 

General Expense: Cost $3,572 per day-f- 
18.66 yds. per day=$.1914 per yd.XlOO yds.= 
$19.14. 

Piece Dye and Print Warps : No charge. 

T otal N et Cost : $241.17. 

Average weight of 100 yds. of cloth equals: 
warp 11.98 lbs. less 8 per cent. (3 per cent, 
throwing and 5 per cent, mill waste)=11.02 lbs. 
XI.125 (16/18=18 oz. per lb.H-16=1.125)= 
12.40 lbs. Filling 11.89 lbs. less 7 per cent, (mill 
waste)=11.06 lbs. plus warp 12.40 lbs.=23.46 
lbs. 

Dyeing, warp weighted to 16/18 oz. Fill¬ 
ing, weighted to net. 13 per cent, included in 
above figures for warp. 7 per cent, included in 


above figures for filling. 

Conclusions : 

Selling price equals net cost $241.17 

=90=net return $267.96-^85= $315.24 

Commission and discount equals 15 

percent, of the selling price.. . 47.28 

Net return equals net cost $241.17-^- 

85 . 267.96 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column . 241.17 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of net 

return . 26.79 

Weekly product of loom equals 
18.66 yds. per dayX^X days 

per week. 102.63 Yds. 

Loom earns per week 102.63 yds.X 

• 2.679 (net profit^-100). $27.49 


133 







Note: Commission and discount added to 
net return should equal selling price. Net cost 
added to net profit should equal net return. 
Weekly product of loom multiplied by the net 
profit, pointed off two units, will give the amount 
the loom earns per week. 


134 



135 


Plate/. Quilling or Copping. Winding the filling or weft on wooden quills o 
fiber cops that the silk may be used in the loom shuttles. The weft interlaces thi 
warp ends when the shuttle is thrown across the warp in process of weaving. 
























Chapter XVI 


COST CALCULATION NO. 5 


T HE fifth complete cost calculation is made of 
a fabric with a combination of weaves, with 
two different yarns for filling. The goods to be 
woven in the raw and dyed in the piece. 

Article: Combination of weaves. Pattern: 
Piece dye. 

Construction of Warp: Reed 60 dents 
per inch. 3 stripes in 1 inch, taffeta, satin and 
twill. Taffeta 2/1 ends per dent, twill 4/1 ends 
per dent, satin 6/1 ends per dent in ground warp. 
Selvage 6 dents of 2/2 ends per dent totaling 12/ 
2 ends. Goods 40" wide, 100 yards long. Take- 
up for taffeta 10 per cent., for twill 7 per cent., 
for satin 5 per cent. Selvage 20 per cent. 

Warp Material: l-end grege (raw silk) 
20/22 denier. Mill waste 5 per cent. 

Cost of Warp Material: Per lb. raw 
$8.75, winding $.25. Total $9. 

Warp Calculation: 60 dents per inch-^ 
3 stripes per inch (taffeta, twill, satin)=-=20 dents 
per inch for each weave. Arranged as follows: 


Dents Ends 



per inch 

Wide 

Taffetas: 20 

X 

40" 

Twill: 

20 

X 

40" 

Satin: 

20 

X 

40" 


Ends 

Yds. 



Taffeta: 1,600X110 (length 
Twill: 3,200X107 
Satin: 4,800X105 
Selvage: 24X120 “ 


Dents per dent Ends 

= 800 X 2 = 1,600 

= 800 X 4 = 3,200 

= 800 X 6 = 4,800 

Yds. 

with 10% take-up) =176,000 

“ 7% “ =342,400 

“ 5% “ =504,000 

“ 20% “ = 2,880 


136 


1,025,280 



COST CALCULATION No. 5 

Combination Weaves 


ARTIC LE Combinati on of Weaves. '_ PATTERN nyo. _ 

Reed go Ends Per Dent EdgSatin 6/1 Width 40” Length 100 yards. 


-- — - -—6 —dciTus^ - 

Warp 1600 Ends. Material Greffe (Raw Silk) 20/22 DWeight 5.07 L b a . @ 

$9 

00 

45 

N* 

3200 




! - 

4800 





Selvage “ “ “ “ “ 





Total 9624 





Yards Warps 1,076,544 *< Filling; Spun Silk 68,480. Worsted 102,720 





Filling 4-16 Picks “ Spun Silk *• 40/2 “ 2.04 “ 

4 

00 

• 

8 

£6 

6-24 » “ Worsted “ 2/48s ** 7.64 “ 

3 

00 

22 

— 

b2 

1 Warping & Beaming Basis 10 c per 100 ends 100 yards 102 • 528 Ends 


10 

10 

25 

2 “ “ . “ •• “ “ 





3 





Twisting 10<^ Per 100 ends 9612 “ 


10 

9 | 

h 

r 

Weaving 99 Yards 


13 

12 

87 

Picking . “ 





Fnishing “ 





Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 


-[ 



General Expanses “ “ $3,572 per day. 100 “ 


15*j 

1 15 ; 

31 

Dyeing! IPiece.Dye) 100 


30 

30 1 

DO 

j( Print Warps) “ 




Printing “ 



1 



Average Weight of _ ^00 _ Yds. _ 13 » 82 Lbs. _Net Cost_ $154 75 


Dy eing, Warp Weight to _ Net _ oz. Fi llin g Weight to _ Net . _ 

_5_per cent is included in above figures for warp. 

7 . ““ ““ “‘‘““ filling 

_COST OF MATERIALS 


warp _ S pun Silk < ffifilifi$ _ conclusions 


Raw 

$8.75 




$3.50 $2.50 


Selling Price $202 

30 

Throwing 







Com. & Discount 15^ j 30 

35 

Dyeing 







Net Returns 47 1 

95 

75 

Winding 

;25 




.25 .25 


Net Cost U54 

Doubling 





_ 


Nfet Profit 10^ 1 17 

20 

Quilling __ 







Weekly Product of Lo5$S-|2S 

31 

Total 

$9.00 




$4.00 $3.00 1 

Loom Earns per Week $22 

07 














































































































































1,025,280 yds. plus 5 per cent, (mill waste) 
=1,076,544 yds.-^100,000 (or point 5 units for 
1000 ends 100 yds.)=10.76544X-471 (weight 
for 1000 ends 100 yds. of grege 20/22 denier) = 
5.07 lbs.X$9 per lb =$45.63. 

Total Ends : Taffeta 1600, twill 3200, satin 
4800, selvage 24. Total 9624 ends. 

Total Yards: Warps 1,076,544. Filling; 
spun silk 68,480, worsted 102,720. 

Filling Construction : 40 picks per inch. 

4 picks spun silk and 6 picks worsted, repeating 
in rotation. Goods 40" wide 100 yds. long. 

Filling Material: 1 end 40/2 spun silk 
and 1 end 2/48s worsted. Mill waste 7 per cent. 

Cost of Filling Material : Spun silk per 
pound, raw $3.50, winding $.25, quilling $.25. 
Total $4 per pound. Worsted, per pound, raw 
$2.50, winding $.25, quilling $.25. Total $3 per 
pound. 

Filling Calculations: 4 picks of spun 
silk and 6 picks worsted totals 10 picks. Goods 
40" wide-^10 picks=4 picks average for both 
yarns. Arranged as follows: 

Picks per inch 

Spun silk 4 picks X 4 picks average = 16 

Worsted 6 picks X 4 picks average = 24 

Total 40 

Spun silk 16 picks per inchX40" wide=640 
yds.XlOO yds. length=64,000 yds. plus 7 per 
cent, mill waste=68,480 yds.-M00,000 (or point 

5 units for 1000 ends 100 yds.) =.6848X2.977 
(weight for 1000 ends 100 yards of 40/2 spun 
silk)=2.04 lbs. @ $4 per lb.=$8.16. Worsted 24 
picks per inchX40" wide=960 yds.XlOO yds. 


137 


length=96,000 yds. plus 7 per cent, mill waste- 
102,720 yds.-=-100,000 (or point 5 units for 1000 
ends 100 yds.)=1.0272X^.44 (weight of 1000 
ends 100 yds. for 2/48s worsted)=7.64 lbs. @ 
$3 per lb.=$22.92. 

Warping and Beaming : Basis 10c per 100 
ends 100 yds. 102.528 @ 10c=$10.25. 

Twisting: 9612 ends @ 10c per 100= 
$9.61. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p m.-f-4.0 
picks=35 plus 1/3=46.66 yds. less 50 per cent. 
stoppage=23.33 yds. per day. Rate of pay per 
loom $3^-23.33 yds. per day=13c per yd. Length 
of goods when measured loose 99 yds. @ 13c per 
yd.=$12.87. 

Picking and Cleaning : No charge. 

Finishing: No charge. 

Cards and Design : No charge. 

Print Warps: No charge. 

General Expense: Cost $3,572 per day, 
per loom-^23.33 yds. per day=.1531X100 yds. 
=$15.31. 

Piece Dyeing and Finishing : 100 yds. @ 
30c yer yd.=$30.00. 

Total Net Cost: $154.75. 

Average weight of 100 yds. cloth equals: 



Lbs. 

Mill Waste 

Lbs. 

Warp 

5.07 

less 5% 

= 4.82 

Filling 

9.68 

less 7% 

= 9.00 

Total 13.82 


Warp weighted to net. Filling weighted to 

net. 


138 


Conclusions : 

Selling price equals net cost $154.75-^-90 


=$171.95-^85 . $202.30 

Commission and discount equals 15 per 

cent, of selling price. 30.35 

Net return equals net cost $154.75-^-90. 171.95 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column . 154.75 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of net re¬ 
turn . 17.20 

Weekly product of loom equals 23.33 

yds. per dayX^X days.. 128.31 

Loom earns per week equals 128.31 yds. 

X-172 (net profit )-*-100 . 22.07 


Note: Commission and discount added to 
net profit should equal selling price. Net cost 
added to net profit should equal net return. 
Weekly product of loom multiplied by net profit, 
pointed off two units for 100 yards will give the 
amount the loom earns per week. 


139 








Chapter XVII 
PIECE-DYE FABRICS 

P IECE-DYE fabrics received an impetus when 
fabrics composed of single, hard twisted yarns, 
such as Georgette, crepes, etc., came into vogue. 
A single, hard twisted yarn cannot be handled in 
skeins, because the single, hard twist will curl up 
and snarl the threads. These yarns are handled 
on spools as they are not easily dyed until woven 
into cloth. The fabrics, then, must be woven in 
“the raw.” The great popular demand for this 
class of goods created many varieties of the crepe 
class. And finishers met the demand by produc¬ 
ing the most beautiful finish thus far devised for 
silk fabrics. 

The distinctive feature of piece-dye fabrics 
is their relative freedom from corrosive weight¬ 
ings. They are composed of purer materials, 
producing more natural qualities and longer life. 
They can be washed, cleaned and handled with¬ 
out loss of strength, luster and sheen. They have 
much longer life than skein-dyed, tin and iron 
weighted fabrics. Nevertheless, not all piece- 
dyed goods are of pure materials. Often the 
goods are weighted, though by an entirely differ¬ 
ent process than the skein-dyed fabrics; and the 
method of procedure is as follows: 

To allow handling in the weighting baths the 
silk is thrown especially for this process. The 
throwster first throws it as 2, 3, 4-thread, etc., 
with five turns per inch. The dyer then takes the 


140 


thrown silk and dips it in the weighting solutions. 

It is then returned to the throwster and doubled 
and twisted the required size and turns per inch. 
The silk is then woven into cloth and returned to 
the dyer to be piece-dyed in the required color. 

The main mechanical difference between 
piece-dyed and skein-dye fabrics is that one is 
dyed before weaving and the other dyed after 
weaving. Skein-dye means dyeing the color in 
skeins before weaving. Piece-dye means dyeing 
the color in the piece after v/eaving. 

There are many other differences, such as 
appearance of the fabric when finished; minor 
variations in manufacture and rapidity of pro- - 
duction of one against the other. Also, some 
classes of fabrics cannot be made with the piece- 
dye method and others cannot be made with the 
skein-dye method. 

In appearance, piece-dye fabrics carry more 
sheen, more radiance and more natural qualities 
than skein-dye goods. On the other hand, skein- 
dye produces a more solid coloring, an evener 
texture, and is adapted more for finer count 
yarns, whereas yarns of heavier count, or harder 
twist, are used for piece-dye fabrics. 

In the manufacture, however, piece-dye has 
a big advantage over skein-dye methods. Except 
in throwing, where hard twist is put on the yarn, 
there is less machinery, less labor, less supervi¬ 
sion and less silk required, with greater produc¬ 
tion than in the manufacture of skein-dyed 
goods. 

The many disadvantages of skein-dye are as 
follows: 


141 


Dyeing the silk before weaving weakens the 
thread up to fifty per cent., therefore machinery 
must be run at slower speed, reducing production. 
The colors must be matched, classified, kept in 
separate lots, and kept clean; which calls for 
more floor space, more labor, and closer supervi¬ 
sion. Also, more material is required, because 
every lot of color must have an allowance of 
working percentage above waste added. The 
goods while weaving must be kept immaculately 
clean, kept classified, and should be manufactured 
only for order, as colors may become passe when 
held too long. The goods after weaving must be 
cleaned, wrapped in special paper during every 
movement and packed in separate lengths. 

However, some classes of fabrics cannot be 
made successfully by the piece-dye method. Fine 
count taffetas, satins, etc., do not dye as well in 
the piece as in the skein. Many color combina¬ 
tions, such as stripes, checks, plaids, ombres, fig¬ 
ures, etc., must be dyed before weaving. 

An outline of dyeing piece-dye goods is as 
follows: 

The first operation is to boil-off the fabric 
in solutions of steam-heated water and olive soap 
in what is called a “degumming” machine. This 
operation takes out all the natural gum in silk, 
and all dirt and foreign matter. The fabric is 
then run through a drying machine. Next, the 
desired colors are mixed and the fabric run 
through the color baths so many times. Machines 
have been devised for this operation. The goods 
are then washed and put in an extractor, which 
extracts the water. As the goods are still moist 


142 


at this point they are dried in an air drying 
machine. 

When thoroughly dry the fabric is soaked 
in a solution or sizing of gums, oils, etc., and this 
solution is baked in the goods by running them 
again through the drying machine. The fabric 
now has shrunk and is stretched and wrinkled 
in a distorted fashion; this condition is remedied 
by what is called a “tentering” machine. This 
extraordinary long machine pulls and tugs the 
fabric as it runs through and restores the width, 
takes out the wrinkles and straightens the length 
of the goods. For satin-faced goods and radiums 
the last operation is called “calendering.” This 
machine is equipped with heated steel and pressed 
paper rollers, which literally “iron” the fabric, 
and restore the rich, pearly luster of silk, plus a 
most beautiful color and sheen. 

Dissecting Piece-Dye Fabrics 

Most fabrics woven in the raw are under 
heavy tension on the loom. That is, while the 
fabric is being woven, it is held as taut as pos¬ 
sible. And when finishing, these goods are mere¬ 
ly stretched into shape on a tentering machine, 
only satin-faced fabrics being calendered, which 
means ironed out flat. The finished fabric, usu¬ 
ally, has contracted both warp and filling ways 
since leaving the loom. The dissection of the 
cloth which includes the reed count, warp and 
picks must be made as it was woven not as the 
fabric appears finished. For this reason it is 
necessary to stretch goods in this class as taut 
as possible while examining under a counting 
glass. 


143 


The elaborate counting glasses are equipped 
with clamps for holding the sample taut. When 
using an ordinary quarter, half, or inch count¬ 
ing glass the simplest method is to hold the 
sample and glass in the hands while inspecting 
the fabrication of the fabric. Do not lay the 
sample loose on a desk or table with the glass 
set over top of the cloth. Instead, wrap the 
sample around both forefingers, using the thumbs 
as a wedge against the bottom of the counting 
glass and stretch the fabric as taut as possible. 
Calculate the inside measurements of the warp 
ends and filling picks. 

The procedure is as follows: 

1. Trim edges of sample and decipher the 
weave. 

2. Distinguish the warp material. 

3. Distinguish the filling material. 

4. Count ends per inch in warp and calcu¬ 
late dents per inch in reed. 

5. Count picks per inch of filling. 

To find the amount of contraction the fab¬ 
ric has undergone since leaving the loom meas¬ 
ure a given length, for example, 10 inches, of 
cloth on a flat surface without stretching, then 
pull out the filling end for the same distance and 
measure stretched. The difference in per cent, 
add to the entire width. 

Example: What is the width of woven 
goods the finished measure of which is 39 y 2 
inches, and when 10 inches of the filling meas¬ 
ured loose is 10^4 inches long? 

Solution: 10^2 inches stretched-^-10 inches 


144 


loose—105 per cent.X39^ inches wide=41X 
inches woven on loom. 

Piece-dyed goods make for a greater variety 
of reeds. The sizes run from 20 to 85 dents per 
inch. Sometimes different sizes of reed wire is 
used in the same reed to make duplication diffi¬ 
cult. Dents are left empty every so many ends 
to imitate knitted fabrics. The number of dents 
per inch, such as 40 and 60, appear in the same 
reed to produce stripe novelties and weaves. 
Caution must be used in deciphering the size of 
reeds by checking every variation in the fabric. 

Satins are generally mounted with the ends 
running in even numbers in the reed, such as 2, 
4, 6, etc., per dent. The maximum number of 
heddles per inch in the harness is 50. The num¬ 
ber of ends per inch divided by 50 will give the 
number of shafts the harness should be mounted. 

Example: How many shafts should harness 
be mounted in goods composed of 300 ends per 
inch? 

Solution: 300 ends per inch-=-50=6 shafts. 

Satins must be mounted in harness accord¬ 
ing to weave. For instance a 5-leaf or shaft 
weave must be mounted on 5 shafts and an 8- 
shaft satin on 8 shafts. But if the number of 
ends per inch exceed 50 heddles per harness the 
number of shafts in the weave must be doubled. 

Example: How many shafts in harness 
should a 5-leaf satin be mounted for a fabric 
containing 400 ends per inch? 

Solution: 400 ends-^50 heddles—8 shafts; 
or 10 shafts which is double the 5-leaf weave. 

The yarns used in piece-dyed fabrics are 


145 


composed of every known fiber. Also, there 
are twisted in soft and hard, and right and left 
twists to vary the same yarn. They are made 
in singles and ply in sizes from 10 to 200s and 
different fibres are spun together in the same 
yarn. They are classified according to their 
origin such as cotton, wool, linen, metal threads, 
rubber strands, spun and schappe silks, artificial 
and the various natural silks as white China, 
Cantons, Tsatlees, Tussahs, Italian and Japan. 

It is advisable to acquire a collection of 
sample yarns to be used for reference and com¬ 
parison. One hank, bobbin or cop with the size, 
twist and material plainly marked. 

The method for finding the size of an un¬ 
known yarn is to compare with a known size, as 
previously instructed. 

In silk and artificial silk the finer the thread 
the lower the size number. The rule is to mul¬ 
tiply number of known size threads by the known 
size and divide by number of unknown threads. 

Example: What is the size of 10 threads 
of artificial silk of unknown size equaling 9 
threads of 100 denier? 

Solution: 100 denierX9 threads—90CH-10 
threads unknown=90 denier. 

Example: What is the size of 10 threads of 
silk, size unknown, equaling 9 threads of 20/22 
denier? 

Solution: 20/22=21 denierX9 threads= 
189-^10 threads unknown=18.9 or 18/20 denier. 

In cotton, spun silk, etc., in fact, in all other 
yarns the finer the thread the higher the size, 
number or count. This is opposite to that of silk 


146 



Plate g. Jacquard Box Loom. This complete weaving 
machine, combining the loom, the Jacquard machine and 
multiple shuttle boxes, is designed to weave a great variety 
of brocades, mock swivel figures and combined brocades and 
plaids. 


147 















and artificial silk. The rule is to divide the num¬ 
ber of known ends by the known size and multi¬ 
ply by number of unknown threads. 

Example: What is the size of 10 threads 
of cotton equaling 8 threads of 60s cotton? 

Solution: No. 60s cotton-^8 threads=7.5 
XI0 threads unknown=75s cotton. 

DISTINGUISHING YARNS 

Artificial silk is being made so fine that it is 
becoming difficult to distinguish it from natural 
silk. The ordinary tests for artificial silk are 
the opening of the fibers, wetting and burning. 
The two principal materials from which artificial 
silk is made are wood pulp and macerated cot¬ 
ton. Both are vegetable fibers which burn fast, 
leaving little ash, burning being accelerated by 
the cellulose compounds. The weakness of arti¬ 
ficial silk is moisture. When thoroughly wet the 
fibers swell nearly double their former size and 
will be weaker than dry fibers and readily break 
or part under slight strain. When the thread has 
been stroked sharply between thumb nail and 
forefinger the fibers open out sharply, each fiber 
standing, wire-like by itself. 

True silk will burn slow and crisp up into 
dark lumps at ends. The fibers when stroked 
will cling together in twos. The silk worm spins 
a double thread termed a have. When these are 
separated the single filament is called a brin. In 
the raw these baves are hard to part, but when 
degummed they separate more easily. Natural 
silk filaments always run in twos. One can be¬ 
come familiar with the difference between natural 


148 


and artificial silk in feel and luster in the fin¬ 
ished goods. 

To determine the size of natural silk it is 
customary to count the filaments in the thread. 
Use a good magnifying glass and follow each 
filament to see whether it is a have (two) or a 
brin (one). To be accurate twenty threads 
should be counted and the number of filaments 
marked on paper and averaged. For Japan silk 
the number of filaments per thread should be 
multiplied by 1.3 per filament. For instance, if 
the average number of filaments count sixteen 
per thread, multiplied by 1.3 will give 20/22 
denier. 

Italian silks are calculated by 1.4. per fila¬ 
ment. Italian silks contain more gum than Japan 
silks and are lighter when degummed. The fea¬ 
ture of Italian silks is the regularity of size and 
number of filaments per thread. If the thread 
contains a finer filament the silk is not Italian. 

Canton silks are hard to separate into fila¬ 
ments because they are hairy and cling together 
more. Tussah silks are several times coarser in 
filaments and irregular in number per thread. 
China silks vary in size and number of filaments 
per thread more than other silks. 

SPUN SILKS 

Spun silk when untwisted will show short 
lengths of natural silk filaments instead of a 
continuous thread. The filaments will pull apart 
and will burn the same as true silk. Schappe is 
the European name for the same thing. When 
untwisted it will show more unevenness in the 
thread and the lengths of fiber will be shorter 


149 


than spun silk. Silk noil is silk waste too short 
for spun silk and is carded like short cotton and 
short wools into coarse yarns. 

WOOLS 

The wools used for silk fabrics are mostly 
the long fibered wools. The longer the fiber the 
finer the yarn can be made. These are spun into 
singles and ply yarns. Wools are crinkly and 
the fibers cling together more than any other 
fiber. When untwisted the fibers are hard to sep¬ 
arate but pull apart when opened. Over a flame 
wool burns slow, crisps up at ends and smells 
strongly of burnt horn. 

COTTONS 

Mostly long fibered cottons, such as Sea 
Island and Egyptian are used in silk goods. These 
are always combed and spun into finer yarns 
than other cottons. They are twisted into singles 
and ply yarns. The fibers will pull apart easily 
when untwisted. When held over a flame cotton 
will burn fast and leave little ash. The luster of 
cotton is dull, the cheaper the cotton the poorer 
the luster. Mercerized cottons appear under 
glass round rod-like and have a glazed surface. 
The cottons called silkateen are of fine grades 
steamed and singed to enhance the luster. 

HARD TWIST 

Hard twisted yarns used in crepes, etc., are 
in singles and ply yarns. Care must be taken in 
untwisting these yarns to determine whether one 
twist has been used or whether right and left 
twist yarns have been put in the fabric. A simple 
device for untwisting yarns can be made of a 


150 


winder bobbin spindle. Set the spindle in two 
upright brackets or stands of wire, one at each 
end. Insert a wire handle at one end for turn¬ 
ing. Fasten one end of the thread to the oppo¬ 
site end of the spindle and the other to a fixed 
point. Count the turns until all the twist is out 
of the yarn. Measure the yarn when untwisted 
and divide the number of turns by the number of 
inches to get the number of turns per inch. 

A pick needle should be used for disengaging 
warp and filling threads. Use a large darning 
needle with the eye inserted in a wooden handle. 


151 


Chapter XVIII 
COST CALCULATION NO. 6 
Georgette Crepe 

T he first cost calculation on piece-dye fabrics 
is made of what has been called a 3 X 3 
Georgette crepe. The technical terms 3X3 
mean that both warp and filling are composed 
of 3-thread single, hard twisted silk. 

This fabric would be mounted on a four- 
shaft harness with a taffeta weave. The material 
is 3-thread Georgette crepe twisted 75-turns per 
inch, half twisted right and half twisted left. 
The thread of each twist runs in rotation of 
twos; that is, two ends of right twist followed by 
two ends of left twist in both warp and filling. 

To keep the twists separate and to distinguish 
one from the other during the mill operations, 
they are stained different colors by the throwster. 
For instance, the yarn twisted right may have an 
orange color and the yarn twisted left may have 
a pink color. By untwisting the thread with the 
fingers one can tell which is right and which is 
left twist. 

Two shuttles are used for the filling, one 
each for the right and left twists, each weaving 
two picks. 

The selvage is composed of 2-thread organ, 
16/14 turns per inch and is boiled-off by the dyer. 
The boil-off should be charged to dyeing. 

Disposition of Fabric : Reed 45 dents per 


152 


COST CALCULATION No. 6 

Georgette Crepe 


ARTICLE * sh » ft Tafft* We are. PATTERN Georgette Cr epe,_ 

Reed 45 Ends Per Dent ^ lO^dents ^ l/2 r Length 100 = 108 =116 


"Warp 4185 Ends. Material 3 thd . 0©Or • Sizel3/l5deni Weight 5*57 Lbs. @ 


o 

© 

n- 

61 L27 

75 turns. 




r tin n a a 




• Selvage 180 “ “ 2thd. Qr^an “ 13/l KdftrH ftr»“ rlAQ “ 

1C 

00 

1 49 

Total 4365 Boil-off 




Yards Warp 116 yds. Woven 108yds. Finished 100yds. Filling 108yds. 





Filling 80 Picks •* 3thrd. Geor. *• 13/15 denier 4.74 

11 

25 

53 

(33 






1 Warping & Beaming Basis 5 e per 100 ends 100 yards 5097 Ends 


05 

2 

55 

2 





3 





Twisting 5 / Per 100 ends 4245 “ 


05 

L 2 

14 

Weaving 16.33 ydg,* k per day 108 Yards 


is 1 ) 

? 19 

80 

Picking! [ 108 


01 

1 

08 

Fnishing “ 





Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 





General Expenses Cost per day $3*572 4 16.33 yds. 108 “ 


21 s * 

r 23 

63 

Dyeing and Finishing. (Piece Dye) 100 " 



r 8 93 

] Printing (Print Warps) “ 




“ 






Average Wei ght of _ 100 _ Yds. _ 0 » 34 _ Lbs. _N et C ost 


^Dyeing, Warp Weight to _ S®t _ oz. Filling Weight to n Q% _ oz. 

21 _per cent is included in above figures for warp. 

, 24 “ “ “ «* “ “ “ " filling 


COST OF MATERIALS 


3thrd 21 hr cl 3thrd 

Ge ergotte 0r7 g an _ GeorgettQFiLLiNG __ conclusions 


Raw 

$8.00 

$8.00 



c 

c 

i 


i 

Selling Price 

227 

73 

Throwing 

3.00 

1*25 



3.00 



Com. & Discount 15$ 

34 

16 

Dyeing 


.50 






Net Returns 

193 57 

Winding 


.25 

1 





Net Cost 

174 

21 

Doubling 





■ 


Net Profit 10$ 

19 

33 

Quilling 





.25 


Weekly Product of LooJRdl 

J 89 

81 

Total 

11.00 

10.00 



11.25 



Loom Earns per Week 

17 

38 







. 


\ i 










































































































































































































































































































































































* 

. 


































































inch, with 2 ends per dent. The width woven is 
46inches wide, the width finished running 
from 39 to 40 inches wide. This shrinkage in 
width is due to the twist in the yarn. The length 
woven is 108 yards; when finished, 100 yards. 
This shrinkage in length is due to the twist in 
the yarn. Take-up in weaving 8 per cent. Warps 
to be made 116 yards long. Filling calculated 
on goods 108 yards long. 

Selvage: 20 dents, 10 dents on each edge 
of the fabric, with 3 ends of 3 ply or 9 ends in 
each dent. The material 2-thread organ 13/15 
denier silk, boiled-off. 

Prices of Material : Warp per lb. raw $8, 
throwing $3, total, $11 per lb. Selvage per lb. 
raw $8, throwing $1.25, dyeing $.50, winding 
$.25, total $10 per lb. 

Calculating Warp : 45 dents per inchX2 
ends per dent=90 ends per inchX46^ inches 
wide=4185 eiidsXH6 yds. long=485,460 yds. 
plus 5 per cent, mill waste=509,733 yds.-f-100,- 
000 (1000 ends 100 yds.) =5.1 OX-942 (weight 
for 1000 ends 100 yds. 13/15 denier silk)= 
4.8042 lbs. plus 16 per cent. (3 per cent, throw¬ 
sters waste, 13 per cent, shrinkage in twist)= 
5.57 lbs. @ $11 per lb.=$61.27. 

Calculating Selvage: 20 dentsX9 ends 
per dent=180 endsXH6 yds. length=20 880 
yds. plus 5 per cent, mill waste=21,924 yds.-r- 
100,000 (1000 ends 100 yds.)=.21924X-628 
(weight for 1000 ends 100 yds.)=.13768 plus 8 
per cent. (3 per cent, throwsters waste, 5 per 
cent, loss in throwing and dyeing) =.14869 @ 
$10 per lb.=$1.49. 


153 


Disposition of Filling : 80 picks per inch, 
goods 46j4 inches wide, length 108 yards. 8 
per cent, allowed for shrinkage in dye. 

Material for Filling: 1 end of 3-thread 
georgette, 75 turns per inch, half right twist and 
half left twist. This to be put on cops instead 
of quills. 

Price of Filling Material: Per lb. raw 
$8, throwing $3, copping $.25, total $11.25 per 
lb. 

Calculating Filling : 80 picks per inchX 
46X inches wide—3720 yds.X108 yds. length= 
401,760 yds. plus 8 per cent, mill waste=433,900 
yds =100,000 (1000 ends 100 yds.)=4.339X-942 
(weight for 10 000 ends 100 yds.) =4.09 lbs. plus 
16 per cent. (3 per cent, throwsters waste, 13 per 
cent, shrinkage in twist)=4.74 lbs. @ $11.25 per 
lb.=$53.33. 

Warping: Basis 5 per cent, per 100 end 
100 yds. Total yds. 509,733 @ 5c per 100 ends 
100 yds.=$2.55. 

Twisting: Basis 5c per 100 ends. Ground 
ends 4185 plus selvage 20X3=60=4245 ends @ 
5c per 100=$2.14. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.=8.0 
picks=.175X100=17.5 plus 1/3=23.33 yds. per 
day maximum production, less stoppage 30 per 
cent.=16.33 yds. per day. Rate of pay per day 
$3 per loom per day=16.33 yds. per day= 
18 l/3c per yd. 108 yds. woven cloth @ 18 l/3c 
per yd.=$19.80. 

Picking: 108 yds. @ lc per yd.=$1.08. 

General Expense: Cost per loom per day 


154 


$3.572—=—16.33 yds. per day—$.2188 per yd.XIOS 
yds.=$23.63. 

Piece Dyeing & Finishing: 100 yds. @ 
$.0892 per yd.=$8.92. 

No charge for cleaning, cards and design 
and print warps. 

Average Weight : 100 yds. of cloth. Warp 
5.57 lbs. less 8 per cent. (3 per cent, throwsters 
waste, 5 per cent, mill waste)—5.12 lbs. Filling 
4.74 lbs. less 11 per cent. (3 per cent, throwsters, 
8 per cent mill waste)=4.22 lbs., 5.12 lbs. and 
4.22—9.34 lbs. 

Note: Shrinkage in twist does not effect 
weight. 

Conclusions : 

Selling price equals $174.21 net cost 


-*-90=$193.57-^85 . $227.73 

Commission and discount equals 15 

per cent, of selling price. 34.16 

Net return equals $174.21 net cost-i- 

90 . 193.57 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column. 174.21 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of 

$193.57 net return. 19.36 

Weekly product of loom equals 16.33 

yds. per dayX^X days. 89.81 Yds. 

Loom earns per week equals 89.81 

yds.-*-100X$19.36 . 17.38 


155 









Chapter XIX 

COST CALCULATION NO. 7 
Crepe de Chine 


rpHE second cost calculation on crepes is made 
-*■ on what is known in the trade as “Crepe de 
Chine.” This is mounted on four shafts and the 
weave is taffeta. 

The warp is composed of grege, (raw silk) 
20/22 denier, unthrown. The filling is com¬ 
posed of 3-thread Canton silk, 14/16 denier, 
single twist, half right, half left, 60 to 65 turns 
per inch. Two shuttles are used, running in ro¬ 
tation of twos, that is, two picks of right twist 
followed by two picks of left twist. The goods 
are woven in the raw, picked after weaving, and 
dyed in the piece. 

Disposition of Fabric : Reed 60 dents per 
inch, ground 2/3 ply per dent, selvage 6 doubled 
ends on each edge. Goods woven 44 inches wide, 
finished 39 to 40 inches wide. The shrinkage 
is due to the twist. Length of warp 110 yds. 
10 per cent, take-up in weaving. Goods shrink 
about 4 inches in width when finished. Filling 
calculated on length 100 yards. 

Material For Warp : 1 end of raw silk 

20/22 denier, unthrown. 

Cost of Warp Material: Per lb. raw 
$8.75, winding $.25, total $9. 

Calculating Warp: Reed 60 dents per 
inchX6 ends (2X3) per dent=360 ends per inch 


COST CALCULATION No. 7. 

Crepe de Chine 


ARTICLE Four Shaft Taffeta. PATTERN Crepe de Chine. 


Reed 60 Ends Per Dent total dent ^ idth44,< = 39/40'" Length 100 yards. 


Warp 

15,840 

Ends. Material Gre&e Size 20/22 Denbigh t 

8.63 

Lbs. @ 

$9 

00 

77 

67 

44 


44 44 44 44 


44 





44 


44 44 44 44 







Selvage 

24 

44 44 44 44 


•* 





Total 

‘ L5,864 

- 







Yards War® 110 

yards. Filling 100 yards. 


• • 




l 

Filling 

80 

Picks *• 3thrd.Canton 14/16 Den. “ 

4.40 

, 

10 

25 

45 

10 

■ < 


<< 


44 





1 Warping & Beaming 

Basis 5 c per 100 ends 100 yards 

174.5 

Ends 


05 

8 

72 

2 


.. 







3 

.. 

.. 


<* 





Twisting 


•e Per 100 ends 

5292 

■ < 


05 

1/ 2 

65 

Weaving 

17.5 yds. per day 

100 

Yards 


17 

j I? 

13 

Picking 



100 



01 

1 

'00 

|_ 

Fnishing 




44 





Cards and Designs 

Per 100 yards Basis of 


« 





General Expenses Cost per day $3,572“ 

100 

*. 


20 

11 20 

41 

Dyeing and Finishine 

(Piece Dye) 

100 

.. 


10 

10 

00 

| (Print Warps) “ 





Printing 








— 

Average Weight of 

100 « Yds. 12.12 Lbs. 

Net Cost 




182 

68 


Dyeing, Warp Weight to _ Net _ oz. Filling Weight to _ Net _ oz. 


_per cent is included in above figures 




COST OF MATERIALS 


WARP FILLING _ CONCLUSIONS 


Raw 

$8.75 




$7.00 


Selling Price 

! 238 78 

Throwing 





3.00 


Com. & Discount 

35 81 

Dyeing 







Net Returns 

20 2 97 

Winding 

.25 






Net Cost 

182 68 

Doubling 







Net Profit 10# 

1 2d 29 

. 





.25 


Weekly Product of Loof^^ 

P 96 25 

Total 

9.00 




10.25 | 


Loom Earns per Week 

i id 62 



ll 

L 


j 

















































































































X44 inches wide=l 5,840 ends, plus 24 ends sel- 
vage=l 5,864 endsXHO yds. length=l ,745,040 
yds. plus 5 per cent, mill waste=l,832,292 yds., 
point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 yds.=18.323X 
.471 (weight for 1000 ends 100 yds. 20/22 denier 
silk)=8.63 lbs. @ $9 per lb.=$77.67. 

Disposition of Filling : 80 picks per inch, 
goods in reed 44 inches wide, 100 yds. length. 
2 picks right twist and 2 picks left twist. 

Material For Filling: 1 end of 3-thread 
Canton, 14/16 denier silk right and left twist 
single, 60 to 65 turns per inch. Put on cops. 

Cost of Filling Material: Per lb. raw 
$7, throwing $3, copping $.25, total $10.25. 

Calculating Filling: 80 picks per inch 
X44 inches wide=3520 yds.X100 yds. length= 
352,000 yds. plus 8 per cent, mill waste=380,160 
yds., point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 yds =3.8X 
1.008 (weight for 1000 ends 100 yds. 3thrd. 14/ 
16 denier)—3.83 lbs. plus 15 per cent. (3 per 
cent, throwsters waste, 12 per cent take-up in 
twist) =4.40 lbs. @ $10.25 per lb.=$45.10. 

Warping and Beaming: Basis 5 per cent, 
per 100 ends 100 yds. 174.50 @ 5c=$8.72. 

Twisting : Ply ends are calculated as single 
ends. Reed 60 dents per inchX2 ends per dent 
=120 ends per inchX44 inches wide=5280 plus 
12 ends selvage=5292 ends @ 5c per 100=$2.65. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.-f-8.0 
picks=. 175X100=17.5 plus 1/3=23.33 yds. per 
day maximum, less 25 per cent. stoppage=17.5 
yds. per day. Rate $3 per day per loom-^17.5 


157 


yds. per day—17 l/8c per yd. 100 yds. @ 
17 l/8c—$17.13. 

Picking 100 yds. @ lc per yd.—$1. 

General Expense: Cost per day $3,572-=- 
17.5 yds. per day—$.2041 per yd. 100 yds. @ 
$.2041 per yd.—$20.41. 

No charge for cleaning, cards and design, 
and print warps. 

Dyeing and Finishing: 100 yds. @ 10c 
per yd.—$10. 

Average Weight: 100 yds. cloth equals; 
warp 8.63 lbs. less 5 per cent, mill waste—8.20 
lbs. Filling 4.40 lbs. less 11 per cent. (3 per 
cent, throwsters waste, 8 per cent, mill waste)— 
3.92 lbs. 7.30 lbs. and 3.02 lbs.—12.12 lbs. 


Conclusions : 

Selling price equals $182.68, net cost 

^-90—$202.97, net retum-r-85— $238.78 

Commission and discount equals 15 

per cent, of selling price. 35.81 

Net return equals $182.68, net cost-s- 

90 . 202.97 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column. 182.68 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of 

$202.97, net return. 20.29 

Weekly product of loom equals 17.5 

yds. per dayX5p2 days. 96.25 Yds 

Loom earns per week equals 96.25 
yds. per weekX$-2029, net profit 
on one yd. $19.43 


158 























COST CALCULATION No. 8 

Canton Satin Crepe 


l 


ARTICLE 


2 Twill, 6 shafts. 


PAT TERN C an ton Satin Creipte 


Reed 60 Ends Per Dent Bj, ^ 28 |° deft Width 47^2" =39/40" Length 100 yards. 


Warp 


22,800 End3. Material Grege _ Siz^PQ T)en. Weig ht _ 12 * ® 3 — Lbs --@ JL? 


Selvage 


180 


2th.Organ 


13/15 J)en. 


.1439 


00 


10 


T otal _ 22,9 80_._J___ 

Yards- Warp. 112 > Wov en cloth 102 yards, F i nis hed 1 00 yd s . Fill. 1 02. 

Filling, _ 60 Picks 8th. Canton _ ^/ifl Den ’ 10.39 


“ 55/60 turns per inch, right a nd left twisty 

1 Warping & Beaming Basis _ 5 c per 100 enda 100 yards _ 257 . 376 _Ends 

2 ■' •• _ “ _:_A 

3 “ “ _ “ ! “ __A 


Twisting 


U- 


Per 100 ends 


114.6 


Weaving 21. 78 yards per day. 

Picking_ _ __ l 


102 Yards 

102 


10 


“ j 


Fnishing 


Cards and D esigns 


Per 100 yards_Ba sis of 


General Expe nses Cost per day $ 3.572 

Dyeing and jjdnishing_(Piece D ye) _ 


102 


100 


Pri»ting (Print Warps) 


Printing 


_Avera ge Wei gh t of _ 


00 


25 


05 


05 


13 


3 / 


01 


16. 

18 


i 


$113 67 


14 39 


106 


12 


50 

87 


5 73 


it 14 


16 


03 


02 


73 


18 00 


100 


Yds. 


21.38 Lbs. 


Net Cost 


302 94 


Dyeing, Warp Weight to net 0 z. Filling Weight to net 

Ground Warp 5 ....... 

Selvage n 13 P er cent 13 included in above figures for warp. 

.. “ “ “ “ “ filling 


selvage "• 13 * 
Pilling 31 


COST OF MATERIALS 


Ground Selvage _ _ filling conclusions 


Raw 

$8.75 

-60- 

GO 

O 

O 


$7.00 


Selling Price _ __j 



Throwing 


1.25 


3.00 


Com. & Discount 15 

59 

j 40 

Dyeing 


.50 




Net Returns 

336 

j 60 

Winding 

.25 

.25 


1 

Net Cost 

302 

1 94 

Doubling 





Net Profit 10$> 

33 

fee 

Quilling ____ 




.25 

Weekly Product of Loom S 

'119 

* 78 

Total 

1 co 

• 

! O 

° 

10.00: 


10.25 

Loom Earns per Week 

40 32 


I 


! » 











































































































































































































Chapter XX 


COST CALCULATION NO. 8 


Canton Satin 


T HE third crepe to be calculated is called “Can¬ 
ton Satin.” This is usually mounted on six 
shafts and weaves a 1 up and 2 down — 
twill. The selvage weaves double-shot, that is, 
two picks in one opening of the harness. 

The warp is composed of grege, (raw silk) 
20/22 denier, single weaving, unthrown. The 
selvage is composed of 2-thread organ, 13/15 
denier silk, boiled-off, (degummed) by the dyer. 
The filling is composed of Canton silk, 14/16 
denier, thrown 8-thread, 55/60 turns per inch, 
right and left single twist. Two shuttles are 
used, one weaving two picks of right twist, fol¬ 
lowed by one weaving 2 picks of left twist, in 
rotation of twos. Warp made 112 yards allow¬ 
ing 10 per cent, take-up in weave and 2 per cent, 
shrinkage in dye. Mill operation calculated on 
length 102 yards. Width in reed 47 y 2 inches, 
finished 39 to 40 inches. The shrinkage is due 
to the twist in the filling. Filling calculated on 
width 47 1 / 2 inches, length 102 yards. Goods to 
be woven in the raw and dyed in the piece. 


Disposition of Fabric : Reed 60 dents per 
inch, 47y 2 inches wide, ground warp 4 ends 2 
ply per dent, selvage 20 dents (10 dents on each 
edge) of 3 ends 3 ply. Length 112 yds. 


Material For Warp : 1 end raw silk, 20/ 


159 







22 denier, single weaving, unthrown. Selvage 1 
end 2-thread organ, 13/15 denier silk, boiled off 
by dyer, thrown 2-thread, 16/14-turns per inch. 

Cost of Warp Material: (per lb.) 
Ground warp; raw $8.75, winding $.25, total $9 
per lb. Selvage: per lb. raw $8, throwing $1.25, 
boil-off $.50, winding $.25, total $10. 

Calculating Warp: Ground; 60 dents 
per inchXS ends (4 ends 2 ply)—480 ends per 
inchX47X inches wide=22,800 endsXH2 yds. 
=2,553,600 yds. plus 5 per cent, mill waste= 
2,681,280 yds., point 5 units for 1000 ends ‘100 
yds.=26.813X*471 (weight for 1000 ends 100 
yds.)=12.63 lbs. @ $9 per lb =$113.67. 

Selvage: 20 dentsX9 ends (3 ends 3 ply) 
per dent=180 endsXH2 yds. length=20,160 
yds. plus 5 per cent, mill waste=21,168 yds., 
point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 yds.—.212X-628 
(weight for 1000 ends 100 yds., 2 thread 13/15 
denier)=.1332 plus 8 per cent. (3 per cent, 
throwsters waste, 5 per cent, loss in throwing) 
=.1439 @ $10 per lb =$14.39. 

Disposition of Filling : 60 picks per inch, 
reed 4 7y 2 inches wide, length 102 yds. long, 2 
picks right and 2 picks left single twist. 

Material For Filling: 1 end 8 thread 
Canton silk, 14/16 denier, right and left single 
twist, 55/60 turns per inch. 

Cost of Filling Material: (per lb.) Raw 
$7, throwing $3, copping $.25, total $10.25. 

Calculating Filling: 60 picks per inch 
X47X inches wide=2,850 yardsX102 yds. 
length=290,700 yds. plus 8 per cent, mill waste 


160 


=313,956 yds., point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 
yds.=3.14X2.69 (weight for 1000 etids, 100 yds., 
8 thread, 14/16 denier silk)=8.45 lbs. plus 23 
per cent. (3 per cent, throwsters waste, 20 per 
cent, take-up in twist)=10.39 lbs. @ $10.25 per 
lb.=$106.50. 

Warping: Basis 5c per 100 ends, 100 yds. 
Ground warp 2,553,600 yds., selvage 20,160 yds., 
total 2,573,760 yds., point 4 units for 100 ends 
100 yds.=257.376 @ 5c=$12.87. 

Twisting: Ply ends are calculated as 

single. Reed 60 dents per inchX4 ends per dent 
=240 endsX47X inches wide=l 1,400 ends plus 
selvage 20 dentsX3 ends per dent=M50 ends= 
11,460 ends, point 2 units for 100 ends=114.6 @ 
5c=$5.73. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m.-^-6.0 
picks=23.34 plus 1/3=31.12 yds., less stoppage 
30 per cent.=21.78 yds. Rate $3 per day, per 
loom-^-21.78 yds. per day=$.1377 per yd. 102 
yds. @ 13$4c P er yd.=$14.03. 

Picking: 102 yds. @ lc per yd.=$1.02. 

No charge for cleaning, cards and design 
and print warps. 

General Expense : Cost per day $3.572-f- 
21.78 yds. per day=$.164 per yd. 102 yds. @ 
$.164 per yd.=$16.73. 

Piece Dye and Finishing: 100 yds. @ 
18c per yd.=$18. 

Average Weight: 100 yds. cloth. Warp 
12.63 lbs. less 5 per cent, mill waste=12 lbs. 
Selvage .1439 lbs. less 8 per cent.=.1324 lbs. 
Filling 10.39 lbs. less 11 per cent. (3 per cent. 


161 


throwsters waste, 8 per cent, mill waste) =9.25 
lbs. The sum of 12 lbs., .1324 lbs. and 9.25 lbs. 
=21.38 lbs. 

Conclusions : 

Selling price equals $302.94 net cost 


-^-90=$336.60 net return-f-85.. $396.00 

Commission and discount equals 15 

per cent, of $396, selling price. 59.40 

Net return equals $302.94 net cost 

-4-90 . 336.60 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column. 302.94 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of 

$336.60 net return. 33.66 

Weekly product of loom equals 

21.78 yds. per dayX^X days.. 119.78 Yds. 
Loom earns per week equals .3368 

profit on 1 yd.Xl 19.78 yds.. . . $40.32 


162 


















COST CALCULATION No. 9 

Wool Crepe 


ARTICLE Fopr Shaft Taffeta.PATTERN Wool Crepe. 


Reed 60 Ends Per Dent Edgf li/^added 1118 Width 48 " = 39 " Length 100 yards 


Warp 17,280 Ends. Material GF®gO Size 20/22den Weight 9*58 Lbs. @ 

[ i I 

)00 

$86 

22 

.< M .4 1 





<4 44 44 44 ** 





Selvage 24 “ . “ “ “ 





Total 17 , 304 





Yards Warp 112, Woyen* 104, Finished 100. Filling* 104. 





Fining 26 Picks 2/20 Wool Crepe,single twist 28.80 

2 

75 

79 

20 

rxglrfc and left , 36 "turns# 

4 4 4 4 4 4 ° 4 4 4 4 i> 





1 Warping & beaming Basis 6 c per 100 ends 100 yards 193.805 Ends 


05 

9 

69 

2 





3 «. “ “ .. «« ... 





Twisting 5 Per 100 ends 57.72 <• 


05 

2 

89 

w«avine 35*9 T ard s per day. 104 Y „ d . 


08 1 

i 8 

67 

Picking f 104 .. 


01 

1 

04 

Fnishing “ 





Cards and Designs Per 100 yards Basis of “ 



- 


- - ---- - _- f ’ \ . 

General Expenses Cest per day $3,572“ 104 


09 9 

5 ~10 

35 

Dyeing and Finishing (Piece Dye) 100 >. 


20 

20 

00 

Printing (Print Warps) “ 





Printing “ 






Average Weight of _ 1°° Yds. 35 * 6 Lbs. _Net Co at * 06 


Dyeing, Warp Weight to 


Net 

5 

“zar 


02 . Filling Weight to_Net 

per cent is included in above figures for warp. 

“ “ ** “ “ “ - ‘LTilling 

COST OF MATERIALS 


WARP _ _ FILLING _CONCLUSIONS 


Raw 

$8.75 




$2.50 

1- 

Selling Price 

2J35 

05 

Throwing 







Com. & Discount 15/£ 

42 

70 

Dyeing 







Net Returns 

242 

29 

Winding 

.25 






Net Cost 

218 

06 

Doubling 







Net Profit 10$ 

24 

23 

_Q uillin g. .. 





.25 


Weekly Product of L^m* 

’197 

45 

Total 

9.00 




2.75 


Loom Earns ner Week 1 

—r- ^ 1 

47 

r* w 

84 





i i i 
































































































































Chapter XXI 

COST CALCULATION NO. 9 
Wool Crepe 

rpHE fourth calculation on crepes is made for 

what is called “Wool Crepe.” This is usually 
mounted on four shafts with a taffeta weave. 
For selvage 12/2 ends are added, 6/2 on each 
edge. 

The warp is composed of grege (raw silk) 
20/22 denier, single weaving, unthrown. The 
filling is composed of 2/20s wool crepe, with 36 
turns per inch right and left single twist. Two 
shuttles are used, one weaving two picks of right 
twist followed by one weaving two picks of left 
twist, in rotation. Goods woven 48 inches wide 
and shrinks to 39 inches when finished. The 
shrinkage is due to twist in filling. Warp to be 
made 112 yards long, goods woven 104 yards 
long and dyed 100 yards long. Allowing 8 per 
cent, take-up weave and 4 per cent, shrinkage in 
dye. To be woven in the raw and dyed in the 
piece. 

Disposition of Fabric : Reed 60 dents per 
inch, ground warp 2 ends 3 ply per dent, selvage 
12/2 ends added. Length 112 yds., width 48 
inches wide. 

Material For Warp: 1 end of raw silk, 
20/22 denier, single weaving, unthrown. 

Cost of Warp Material: (per lb.) Raw 
$8.75, winding $.25, total $9 per lb. 


163 


Calculating Warp: Reed 60 dents per 
inchX6 ends (2 ends 3 ply) per dent=360 ends 
per inchX48 inches wide=l 7,280 ends plus 24 
ends (12/2) for selvage=17,304 endsXH2 yds. 
length=l,938,048 yds. plus 5 per cent, mill waste 
=2,034,950 yds., point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 
yds.=20.35X-471 (weight for 1000 ends 100 
yds. 20/22 denier silk)=9.58 lbs. @ $9 per lb.= 
$ 86 . 22 . 

Disposition of Filling: 26 picks per inch, 
goods 48 inches wide, 104 yds. long. 

Material For Filling: 1 end of 2/20s 
wool twisted 36 turns per inch right and left 
single twist. Wool crepe twist yarn is calculated 
on basis of 540 yds. of No. 1 per lb., the same 
as worsted. 

Note: Refer to worsted table to get weight 
per lb. per 1000 ends 100 yards. 

Cost of Filling Materials (per lb.) Raw 
$2.50, copping $.25, total $2.75 per lb. 

Calculating Filling: 26 picks per inch 
X48 inches wide=1248 yds.X104 yds. length= 
129,792 yds. plus 8 per cent, mill waste=140,175 
yds., point 5 units for 1000 ends 100 yds.=1.402 
XI7.86 (weight for 1000 ends 100 yds. 2/20s 
wool crepe)=25.04 lbs. plus 15 per cent, take-up 
in twist=28.80 lbs. @ $2.75 per lb.=$79.20. 

Warping: Basis 5c per 100 ends 100 yds. 
1,938,048 yds., point 4 units for 100 ends 100 
yds.=193.805 @ 5c=$9.69. 

Twisting: Basis 5c per 100 ends. Ply 
ends are calculated as single ends. Reed 60 ends 
per dentX2 ends per dent=120 endsX48 inches 
wide=5760 ends plus 12 ends selvage=5772 ends 
@ 5c per 100=$2.89. 

164 


Weaving: Speed of loom 140 r.p.m=2.6 
picks per inch=.5385X100=53.85 plus 1/3 
=71.80 yds. per day maximum, less stoppage 50 
per cent.=35.90 yds. per day. Rate $3 per loom 
per day=35.9 yds. per day=8 l/3c per yd. 104 
yds. @ 8 l/3c per yd.=$8.67. 

Picking: 104 yds. cloth @ lc per yd.= 
$1.04. 

No charge for cleaning, cards and design 
and print warps. 

General Expense : Cost per day $3,572= 
35.9 yds. per day=$.0995 per yd. 104 yds. cloth 
@ $.0995 per yd.=$10.35. 

Piece Dyeing and Finishing: 100 yds. 
cloth @ 20c per yd.=$20. 

Average Weight: 100 yds. cloth. Warp 
9.58 lbs. less 5 per cent, mill waste=9.10 lbs. 
Filling 28.80 lbs. less 8 per cent, mill waste= 
26.50 lbs. 9.10 lbs. and 26.50 lbs.=35.60 lbs. 


Conclusions : 

Selling price equals $218.06=90= 

$242.29, net return-^-85. $285.05 

Commission and discount equals 15 
per cent, of $285.05, selling 

price. 42.76 

Net return equals $218.06, net cost 

=90 . 242.29 

Net cost equals total of right hand 

column . 218.06 

Net profit equals 10 per cent, of 

$242.29, net return. 24.23 

Weekly product of loom equals 35.9 

yds. per dayX^X days. 197.45 Yds. 

Loom earns per week equals 197.45 
yds.X-2423 profit on one yd.. . 


165 


$47.84 








Chapter XXII 

NARROW-WARE COST CALCULATION 


T HE sixth complete cost calculation is made of 
a ribbon fabric. Ribbons, hatbands, etc., are 
made in endless combinations of weaves, mater¬ 
ials and colors. The point emphasized on nar¬ 
row-ware fabrics is the selvage or edges. These 
are generally woven with a different weave for 
the edges, so as to distinguish them from those 
of fabrics woven on a broad loom and cut into 
narrow fabrics later. Piece-dyed ribbons are 
often manufactured separately from yarn dyed 
ribbons. 

The looms built for narrow-ware fabrics are 
unlike broad looms in that they invariably weave 
a number of fabrics at one time. Narrow-ware 
looms weave from ten of the wide to one hun¬ 
dred or more of the narrower widths. There is 
a shuttle always for each fabric. The number 
of fabrics a loom will weave is technically desig¬ 
nated by the number of “shuttles” or “spaces.” 

Ribbons, hatbands, etc., are calculated and 
sold by the width in lignes. Lignes is a French 
measure which reduces the measurement to fine 
points. The technical sign for lignes is three 
dots written after the figure, much the same as 
two dots is written after the figure to designate 
inches. To calculate the number of yards and 
pounds the number of lignes must be reduced 
to inches. The equivalent of lignes and inches 


166 


RIBBON COST CALCULATION No. 10 

Taffeta 

Duality Rlbb ° n _ No 150 Pattern Taffeta _ 

Width 60 Lignes No. 5pacE5 20 _ Length 400 _ yd 5 _ 

Total Lignes 1200 Total Pieces 800 _ 

Reed 6 Ends per □ ent Ends per Space 1098/1 Ends Edge 32/2 


—— - --------—— ----—- 

Warp 1098 Ends. Material 2thrd • Organ 5iz.e. t3/l5Deniervvght.73 .40 ^10 00 

734 

00 

*1 *1 II M 



•I n «• «| tl 



Edge. 64 m ii ii 



Total 1162 



Yards Warp: 10,735,880. Filling 4,565,300 



Filling 100 Picks Material 3 thrd. Tram 5‘.2ie 13/l5DenierwghT 46 . 36 10 00 

463 

60- 

11 l« « M n 



Warping Basis 5^ per 100 ends, 100 yds. Ends23,240 22 

51 

13 

II n 



.. 



Twisting « 10/ per 100 ends 22.600 10 

22 60 

Names5 3 sets @ 30^ =» 10^ ” " ” 22.600 10 

22 60 

Weaving 10 Yds. per Cut Cuts 40 7 50 

300 00 

Piece D'ye ,Pieces per 

i 

Printing ” ” » 


Finishing 800 •< « 50 

o 

z> 

1 

Picking & Cleaning 800 h " >» 1 00 

8 00 

Blacking & Labeling 800 " M " 1 

00 

_8_ 

po 

DO 

Blocks, Paper & Labels 800 " '! f ’ 1 

50 

12 i 

Boxes 8» Boxing 800 »* i| ft 

8 

o 

o 

64 

)0_ 

General Expense 424 Loam-Hnurs 67 & per Hour 


r 

284 

38 

Included in shove figures for Warp 13^ Filling 13% Mill Cost 



1974 

31 


Dyeing, Vv/arp weignted 16/l8 oz. Filling 22/24 oz. 


COST OF MATERIALS 
WARP FILLING 


H AW. 

THROWIHG 

$ 7.50 
1.25 

— 

— 


$6 • 50_ 

1.00 

- 


Cost per Piece 

Cost per Ligne 

$2,468 

.0413 

□ YEINB 

M 

a 

© 

o 



2.00 





WINDIN& 

.25 




.25 




_ 

□ DUD L* NG 








1 

r 

qUILCIMG 





.25 




Tat a.1 

10.00 




10.00 


































































































































































is: there are 11*4 hgnes to 1 inch, and for cal¬ 
culating purposes the equivalent of 45 lignes to 
4 inches is used. Multiply by 4 and divide by 
45 is the rule. 

Ribbons are made up in standard widths 
which usually measure as follows: 

No. 1, 2 J4'"; No. 1*4, 3 No. 2, 5"'; 
No. 3, 7'"; No. 5, 10"'; No. 7, 13"'; No. 9, 
17"'; No. 12, 21'"; No. 16, 25'"; No. 22, 30'"; 
No. 40, 35'"; No. 60, 40"'; No. 80, 45'"; No. 
100, 50'"; No. 120, 54'"; No. 150, 60'"; No. 
200, 65'". 

The reeds used for ribbons, hatbands, etc., 
are calculated both in lignes and inches. That 
is, there are so many dents per ligne and so many 
dents per inch. The equivalents are as follows: 
Dents per ligne 354 3^4 4 454 454 4^4 

Depts per inch 39.37 42.18 45. 47.81 50.62 53.43 

5 554 SJ4 Sy 4 6 654 654 

56.25 59.06 61.87 64.68 67.5 70.31 73.12 

63,4 7 7J4 754 7^4 8 

75.92 78.75 81.56 84.37 87.18 90. 

To reduce the standard dents per inch to 

dents per ligne: 

Dents per inch 40 45 50 55 60 65 70 

Dents per iigne 3.55 4. 4.44 4.88 5.125 5.77 6.22 

75 80 85 90 

6.66 7.11 7.55 8. 

Ribbons are generally put up in ten-yard 
pieces and often sold by the ligne. For instance, 
a ribbon measuring 60 lignes wide sold for four 
cents per ligne would mean 60 lignesX4 cents 
per ligne=$2.40 for 10 yards of ribbon. The 


167 





cost sheet is calculated to show the mill cost per 
piece and the mill cost per ligne. Ribbons, hat¬ 
bands, woven labels, etc., cost sheets are arranged 
differently from broad goods in many respects. 
One in particular is the manner in which goods 
are put up for the market. Often these require 
paste-board blocks, paper, labels, cartons, etc. 
The cost sheet must show these costs. The sheet 
on the opposite page has been adjusted to meet 
these different requirements^ (See form No. 10.) 

The general expense for ribbons, hatbands, 
woven labels, etc., is often calculated on the cost 
per loom hour. The loom hour rate is calcu¬ 
lated by totaling the general expense for a given 
period, not less than six months, and dividing 
this amount by the average number of looms 
running during that period. Then divide the 
quotient by the number of working hours in¬ 
cluded in that period to get the cost per loom 
hour. For example; a 50 loom plant cost $45,000 
per year for general expense. The average loom 
run during the year is 60 per cent. 50 1oomsX 
60 per cent.=30 looms operated. $45,000-^30 
looms=$l,500 per loom, per year. Hours per 
year are: 365 days, less 52 Sundays, 26 Satur¬ 
days, and 7 holidays, leaving 280 working days 
per year @ 8 hours per day equals 2,240 working 
hours per year. $1,500 cost per year per loom 
divided by 2,240 hours per year equals 67c per 
working hour, per loom. 

The complete cost calculation is as follows: 

Quality: Ribbon. No. 150. Pattern: 
Taffeta. Width: 60 lignes, number of spaces on 
loom 20, length 400 yards, total lignes 1200, total 
pieces 800. 


168 


Construction of Warp : Reed 6 dents per 
ligne, ground warp 3/1 ends per dent, 18 ends 
per ligne, 1098 ends per space. Edge warp 4/2 
ends per dent, 4 dents on each edge totalling 32/2 
ends. Take-up 10 per cent. 

Warp Material: 1 end 2-thread organ, 
13/15 denier silk. Loss in throwing 8 per cent. 
Mill waste 5 per cent. 

Cost of Warp Material: (per lb.) Raw 
$7.50, throwing $1.25, dyeing $1, winding $.25, 
total $10 per lb. 

Warp Calculation : Reed 6 dents per 
ligneX3 ends per dent=18 ends per ligneX^O 
lignes wide=1080 ends, plus 3 dents or 18 ends 
for pulling-in—1098 ends in warp, plus 32/2 or 
64/1 ends in edge=1162 ends for 1 spaceX20 
spaces on loom—23,240 ends in loomX440 yds. 
(10 per cent, take-up)=10,225,600 yds., plus 5 
per cent, mill waste—10,736,880 yds. @ 1.75 
drams per 1000 yds.=1878.954 drams-^256 
drams per lb.=73.40 lbs. @ $10.00 per lb.= 
$734. 

Total Ends: Ground warp 1098, edge 64, 
total 1162 space. 

Total Yards: Warp 10,735,880. Filling 
4,565,300. 

Filling Construction : 100 picks per inch, 
goods 60 lignes wide. 400 yds. long. 

Filling Material: 1 end 3-thread tram, 
13/15 denier silk. Loss in throwing 6 per cent. 
Mill waste 7 per cent, 

Cost of Filling Material : (per lb.) Raw 


169 


$6.50, throwing $1, dyeing $2, winding $.25, 
quilling $.25, total $10 per lb. 

Filling Calculation : Width 60' "X4"= 
240-4-45' "—5 1/3 inches,X100 picks per inch— 
533.33 yds.X400 yds. long—213,332 yds., plus 7 
per cent, mill waste—228,265 yds.X20 spaces on 
loom—4,565,300 yds.X2.6 drams per 1000 yds. 
=11,869.78 drams-^-256 drams per lb.—46.36 lbs. 
@ $10 per lb.—$463.60. 

Warping and Beaming : Basis 5c per 100 
ends 100 yds. 440 yds.X*05 per 100—22c per 
100 ends. 23,240 endsX22c per 100=$51.13. 

Twisting: Basis 10c per 100 ends. 22,600 
ends @ 10c—$22.60. 

Harness: 22,600 ends @ 30c per 100 (cal¬ 
culated to run 3 sets of warps, 304-3—10c per 
100)—$22.60. 

Weaving: Speed of loom 100 r.p.m.-^-100 
picks per inch—1X10=10 yds. plus 1/3—13.33 
yds. per day, less 40 per cent, stoppage—8 yds. 
per day. Rate of pay $6 per day4-8 yds. per day 
—$.75 per yd.XlO yds. to cut— $7.50 per cutX 
40 cuts— $300. 

Piece Dye and Printing: No charge. 

Finishing: Price 50c per 100 piecesX^OO 
pieces—$4. 

Picking and Cleaning : Price $1 per 100 
piecesXSOO pieces—$8. 

Blocking and Labeling: Price per 100 
pieces $1. 800 pieces @ $1 per 100—$8. 

Blocks, Paper and Labels : Price per 100 
pieces $1.50. 800 pieces @ $1.50 per 100—$12. 


170 


Boxes and Boxing: Price per 100 pieces 
$8. 800 pieces @ $8 per 100=$64. 

General Expense: Loom produces 8 yds. 
per day for 8 hours per day, or 1 yd. per hour. 
Goods 400 yds. long @ 1 yd. per hour equals 400 
hours, plus 24 hours for twisting loom=424 
hours @ 67c per hour=$284.08. 

Total mill cost $1974.01. 

Included in above figures for warp 13 per 
cent., for filling 13 per. cent. 

Dyeing warp weighted to 16/18 oz. Filling 
22/24 oz. 

Mill cost per piece: $1974.01-^-800 pieces— 
$2,468. 

Mill cost per ligne: $2,468-^-60 lignes= 
$.0413. 


FINIS 



171 


TABLE OF CONTENTS 

Chapter Page 

1. Creation and Manufacture of Silk Fabrics. 3 

2. Yarns and Their Fibers. 6 

Cotton, its history, cultivation, spinning, appearance 
qualities, yarns and sizing systems. 

3. Wool and Worsted Yarns. 14 

Their qualities, appearance and sizings. The Run and 
Cut systems of measurement for Wool. Worsted yarns 
and sizing tables. 

4. Linen, Ramie, Metal Threads and Rubber 

Strands . 20 

How fibers are converted into yarns. 

5. Spun Silk, o.r Schappe, Filoselle, Noils. 24 

The different classes of yarns, so called, and their 
sizing formulas. The Continental system. 

6. Artificial or Synthetic Silk. 28 

The product therefrom, their manufacture, appearance, 
sizing and examples for determining size. 

7. Silk .. 31 

Production of raw silk; sericulture. The silk worm. 
Composition of silk fiber. Reeling. Sizing for deniers, 
grams and drams, and formulas for same. The raw 
silk invoice. Method for determining the yardage in 
a bale of raw silk and per pound according to denier. 

8. Thrown Silk. 40 

Processes of throwing described. Shrinkage in throw¬ 
ing. Dramage tables. Throwing invoice and check for 
same. 

9. Silk Testing. 45 

Conditioning tests for boil-off; tensility, elasticity, 
cleanliness, etc. 

BOOK II. 

1. Fabrics . 49 

Introductory description. Weaves; Tabby, Taffeta, 
Twills, Satin, with drawing-in drafts for the harness; 
point paper designs; repeat of weaves; and interlace¬ 
ments of warp and filling. The harness. Twills; 
right twill; left twill. Satins. Point Paper. 

172 


















CONTENTS —Continued 


Chapter P AGE 

2. Dissecting *...... 5g 


Magnifying glasses. Determining the warp. Warp 
construction. Reeds. Deniers per inch. How to de¬ 
termine same, with examples. Weave examples and 
diagrams. 

3. Calculating Warps. 65 

Warp calculations for the number of ends, yards, 
amount and weight of material required, with warping 
and quilling diagrams and examples. 

Calculating Warp for Narrow Fabrics. 70 

4. Filling Calculations. 71 

Different methods of determining the texture of the 
weft of a fabric by the number of threads and size. 
Filling calculations and examples for broad and narrow 
fabrics. 

5. Mixed Yarn Fabrics. 75 

How to dissect. Methods of testing fibers. Examples 
for measuring weight and size of yarns. Calculating 
the yardage for warp and filling. Dissecting. 

6. Combination of Weaves. 84 

Calculating the requirements of goods with examples 
and their solutions with practical tables for short-cut¬ 
ting calculations. 

7. Colors . 88 

How they affect the construction of the warp. Ex¬ 
amples for measuring warp and filling stripes. 

8. Weight Calculations—Short Methods. 94 

For cotton and spun silk. Standard sizes. Weight and 
size examples. Noils and linen Cut count. American 
woolen Run count. English worsted count. 

9. Weight Calculations—Short Methods.100 

For reducing denier to grams. Warp and filling cal¬ 
culations. Artificial silk, methods of calculating. 

10. Cost . . .. 107 

Determining prices to be charged for goods. Cost 
sheets. First steps in estimating costs. 

11. Mill Process Calculating.112 

Methods of paying workers. The prices for winding, 
warping, quilling and weaving. Calculating stoppage. 

The cost of twisting-in. General expenses. Cost of 
picking, finishing, designs, cards, piece dyeing, print 


warps and dyeing. 

12. Complete Cost Calculation No. 1.119 

For a taffeta with cost form. 

13. Complete Cost Calculation No. 2.123 

For a twill with cost form. 

14. Complete Cost Calculation No. 3.126 

For mixed warp fabrics with cost form. 

15. Complete Cost Calculation No. 4.131 

For cotton-back satin with cost form. 

16. Complete Cost Calculation No. 5.136 

For combination weaves, with cost form. 


173 


















CONTENTS —Continued 


Chapter Page 

17. Piece Dye Fabrics.140 

With descriptive features of same. Outline of dyeing. 
Dissecting piece dye fabrics. Examples and solutions. 

18. Complete Cost Calculation No. 6.152 

For a georgette crepe with cost form. 

19. Complete Cost Calculation No. 7.156 

For a crepe de chine with cost form. 

20. Complete Cost Calculation No. 8.159 

For a canton satin with cost form. 

21. Complete Cost Calculation No. 9.163 

For a wool crepe with cost form. 

22. Narrow-ware Cost Calculation.166 

With cost forms. No. 10 for taffeta ribbon. 

WEAVE DIAGRAMS 

No. 

1. Taffeta Weave with Harness Draft. Point 

Paper Design and Warp and Filling Interlace¬ 
ments . 51 

2. Right Twill Weave. 53 

3. Left Twill Weave. 54 

4. Satin . 55 

COST CALCULATION FORMS 

1. Taffeta ..120 

2. Twill .....124 

3. Mixed Fabrics.130 

4. Cotton-back Satin.136 

5. Combination Weaves.142 

6. Georgette Crepe.158 

7. Crepe de Chine.164 

8. Canton Satin Crepe.166 

9. Wool Crepe.172 

10. Taffeta Ribbon.176 

FULL PAGE PLATES 

Plate 

a. Guage Reel for Determining Evenness and - 

Cleanness of Silk. 76 

b. Silk Throwing—Doubling and Spinning by the 

Single Process Machine... 86 

174 
























CONTENTS —Continued 


Plate Page 

c. Silk Throwing—Doubling and Spinning by the 

Combination Spinner-Doubler Machines_96 

d. Silk Throwing—Reeling and Lacing...,. 106 

e. Warping . 115 

f. Quilling or Copping. 135 

g. Jacquard Box Loom. 147 

ILLUSTRATIONS 

Magnified cotton fiber, Appearance of. 8 

Weighing and bundling skeins of raw silk. 14 

Fibers of silk highly magnified. 15 

Skein of Japan raw silk in “book” form. 20 

Moth bursting from silk cocoon. 24 

Natural and artificial silk fibers magnified and com¬ 
pared . 27 

Raw silk filaments magnified. 31 

Cocoon reeling apparatus. 33 

Silk worm feeding on mulberry leaves. 39 

Japanese girl weaving silk. 40 

Conditioning ovens and scales. 45 

The sizing test. 47 

Silk box loom. 48 

Double Jacquard ribbon loom. 57 

Fabric sample cut for dissection. 59 

How to dissect sample with picking needle.. 62 

Dissecting fibers or filaments of a thread. 71 

Determining yarn sizes. 72 


175 

































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